Syria Enters 'Transitional Justice' Phase

Summary

Amanpour Podcast Summary

Episode: Syria Enters 'Transitional Justice' Phase
Date: December 12, 2025
Host: Christiane Amanpour (CNN)
Key Guests:

• Ruti Teitel (Professor of Law, NYLS; author, Presidential Visions of Transitional Justice)
• Aria Florent (CEO, Liberation Ventures)
• Jonathan Freedland (Journalist, author of The Traitor's Circle)
• Kate Shaw (Professor of Law, University of Pennsylvania)

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Overview

This episode of Amanpour tackles the concept and practice of transitional justice, focusing on Syria’s ongoing journey out of dictatorship and the complex, parallel struggles in the United States for reparations and cultural reckoning. Conversations explore how societies confront legacies of oppression, the frameworks for meaningful repair, resistance in the face of tyranny, and the shifting powers of the U.S. presidency.

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Main Segments & Key Insights

[00:46 - 02:53] Syria’s Challenge: From Dictatorship to Transitional Justice

• Christiane Amanpour sets the stage, quoting Syria's new president, Ahmed Al Shara:
  “Victory is only the start.”
• With Assad’s regime ended, the real challenge is healing deep societal wounds and constructing justice for past and ongoing crimes.
• Amanpour draws global parallels: “It's something that links Syria to the United States, to South Africa and many countries in between with dark pasts which have to be reckoned with.” [01:21]

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[02:53 - 04:33] What Is Transitional Justice?

Guest: Ruti Teitel

• Ruti Teitel explains her pioneering use of the term:
  “Transitional justice...is the way societies deal with the past and radical change when they're in transition from an illiberal past, dictatorship, repressive regime and move to somewhat more liberal regime.” [02:53]
• Transitional justice spans political, economic, and social transformation—examples include post-apartheid South Africa and post-dictatorship Argentina.
• Teitel shares her direct involvement in Syrian efforts, in partnership with the Syrian Network for Human Rights, emphasizing property loss and ongoing violations.

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[04:33 - 06:37] Reparations in the United States

Guest: Aria Florent

• Aria Florent frames reparations as comprehensive, not just financial:
  “We define reparations really in essence as repair...as a four part framework of reckoning, acknowledgement, accountability and redress.” [05:04]
• Liberation Ventures organizes bottom-up movement building, supporting grassroots organizations.
• Amanpour probes U.S. resistance to reparations—Florent insists the term is crucial worldwide, noting Holocaust reparations as a precedent:
  “If we chose not to, it would be like we're denying actually the dignity that black Americans really deserve.” [06:37]

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[07:17 - 09:26] Historical Examples and Critiques

• Teitel expands on types of reparations—rejecting punitive models, highlighting “transformative purpose”:
  “Not the punitive, not the expiatory. And then I think the question is, is money the best approach?...The Freedmen's Bureau after the Civil War promoted health care, education, housing.” [07:45]
• Stresses the need for durable social transformation, not only monetary redress.

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[10:00 - 11:06] Culture, Shame, and the Challenge of U.S. Reckoning

• Florent identifies shame as a core blockage in U.S. culture:
  “We feel an immense amount of collective shame, moral injury, around the history of this country...You cannot repair something if you can't face it.” [10:00]
• Emphasizes the dual importance of cultural and policy change.

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[11:16 - 13:24] The Role of Leadership: Apologies, Acknowledgment, and Diplomacy

• Teitel and Amanpour discuss presidential leadership, referencing Obama’s diplomatic efforts—labeled an “apology tour” by critics.
• Teitel argues:
  “Obama walked that thin line very well because he knew how much he needed to do to reset foreign relations.” [11:49]
• The case is made that acknowledgment strengthens national relationships and reinforces “soft power.”

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[14:37 - 15:59] Modern Reparations and the Power of Storytelling

• Florent on California’s new agency for reparations:
  “This work needs to build on itself...you can actually learn from the policies...at the local level, use them to inform...what's possible at the national level.” [14:37]
• Despite most Americans opposing cash reparations, public support is rising, paralleling the arc of marriage equality:
  “36% of people support reparations...10 percentage points higher than support was for marriage equality when that movement got started.” [15:59]
• Storytelling is central to shifting cultural attitudes.

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[17:25 - 19:00] Syria’s Next Steps: The Danger of Rushing Justice

• Teitel warns Syria’s transitional justice must be inclusive, not rushed:
  “Very important to have an inclusive process...not to rush. My concern is that he seems to be rushing to have a transitional justice plan, like, you know, tomorrow.” [17:25]
• Documentation, especially property loss and diverse victim experiences, is key to a sustainable future.

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[21:06 - 24:07] The UK’s Anti-Immigration Movement: ‘Pink Ladies’

Report by Jomana Karadce

• Feature on the emergence of a new women-led, anti-immigration group, “Pink Ladies”, blurring lines with far-right rhetoric.
• Group leader Orla Minihane:
  “We do not need to bring more everyday men from cultures that do not think like we do, who treat women like third class citizens and who think it's acceptable to marry eight and nine year old girls.” [21:06]
• Critics argue the movement exploits legitimate safety concerns to push xenophobic narratives.

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[24:11 - 36:56] ‘The Traitor’s Circle’: German Resistance to Hitler

Guest: Jonathan Freedland

• Jonathan Freedland reveals “almost no stories” are told of German internal resistance, despite ~3 million detained for dissent:
  “About 3 million Germans, which is not nothing, were jailed, were arrested, were detained for crimes of dissent. Sometimes no more than a critical remark.” [25:00]
• Tells the story of a secret, high-society circle in wartime Berlin, their courage, and betrayals.
• Dramatic account: Maria von Maltzahn’s bold bid to save her Jewish lover from the Gestapo:
  “She says, if you're so sure there's a Jew here, take out your gun and shoot through the couch right now...but if you do it, I demand a credit note promising to pay for the repair of the sofa.” [31:44]
• Explores how class, religion, and quiet acts of resistance (like hiding hands to avoid the Hitler salute) shaped courage.
• Freedland, a British Jew, discusses the sensitivities of recounting these “good Germans” and the necessity of honoring all resistance:“We don't do any service to history if we exclude and pretend those people...didn’t exist.” [34:38]

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[38:09 - 52:51] The Supreme Court’s Transformation of Presidential Power

Guests: Kate Shaw & Michelle Martin

• Kate Shaw declares the U.S. is in a “constitutional crisis,” with Presidential power unchallenged by Congress or the Court:
  “We have and have had since January a president who is pushing the bounds of executive authority in ways we just haven't seen before.” [38:32]
• Focus on Trump v. Slaughter: Whether the President can summarily fire heads of independent agencies—potentially overturning 100 years of precedent.
• Shaw’s warning:
  “A vast transfer of power from Congress to the President, even though...the Constitution does not explicitly grant the President any such power.” [42:07]
• Supreme Court increasingly aligns with a “unitary executive” theory, granting broad presidential control.
• Shaw is pessimistic but hopeful that in some areas (such as birthright citizenship) the Court may resist overreach due to constitutional clarity and precedent.
• The Court is “overturning the 20th century” on key rights, agency powers, and voting laws; Congress is “asleep at the wheel.” The legitimacy crisis in the Court could threaten American democracy if unchecked.

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Notable Quotes (with Timestamps)

• “Transitional justice...is the way societies deal with the past and radical change when they're in transition from an illiberal past, dictatorship, repressive regime and move to somewhat more liberal regime.”
  —Ruti Teitel [02:53]

• “We define reparations really in essence as repair...As a four part framework of reckoning, acknowledgement, accountability and redress.”
  —Aria Florent [05:04]

• “You cannot repair something if you can't face it.”
  —Aria Florent [10:00]

• “Obama walked that thin line very well because he knew how much he needed to do to reset foreign relations.”
  —Ruti Teitel [11:49]

• “Backlash is one of the best KPIs for progress...you only see this kind of backlash when we are actually making progress.”
  —Aria Florent [10:00]

• “About 3 million Germans, which is not nothing, were jailed, were arrested, were detained for crimes of dissent. Sometimes no more than a critical remark.”
  —Jonathan Freedland [25:00]

• “If you're so sure there's a Jew here, take out your gun and shoot through the couch right now...if you do it, I demand a credit note promising to pay for the repair of the sofa.”
  —Story retold by Jonathan Freedland [31:44]

• “A vast transfer of power from Congress to the President, even though...the Constitution does not explicitly grant the President any such power.”
  —Kate Shaw [42:07]

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Additional Themes Briefly Touched

• UK & European Immigration Debates: Civil society’s vulnerabilities to far-right, gendered populism ([21:06–24:07]).
• Supreme Court as Political Battleground: The growing perception of the Court as a partisan tool, and implications for national legitimacy ([50:53–52:46]).

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Conclusion

This episode of Amanpour weaves together the urgency of reckoning with collective crimes—from Syria to the U.S.—the multifaceted work of justice beyond mere punishment or cash, and the sobering reality that even in long-established democracies, the fundamental architecture of rights and power requires constant vigilance and civic engagement. The stories of resistance and struggle, past and present, underscore that justice is rarely quick or uncontested, but remains a project essential to peace and democratic renewal.

Transcript

[Christiane Amanpour]

Hello everyone and welcome to Amanpur. Here's what's coming up.

[Ruti Teitel]

Change can come from the top and.

[Christiane Amanpour]

From civil societies from Syria to the United States. Reckoning with the past, A discussion about transitional justice and reparations.

[Orla Minihane]

Plus, we do not need to bring in more every day.

[Christiane Amanpour]

The new face of Britain's anti immigration movement. A special report then. The traitor's circle, the people who fought tyranny in Nazi Germany. Journalist Jonathan Friedland joins me with the ultimate story of heroic resistance there.

[Kate Shaw]

And the justices are being asked to overrule a 90 year old precedent that allows those agencies to exist with a degree of independence from the president.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Trump versus Slaughter, the case that could grant the President unprecedented power. What it means for the future of America. Welcome to the program, everyone. I'm Christiane Amanpour in London. Victory is only the start. The words of Syria's President Ahmed Al Shara as his country celebrated a year of freedom from, from Bashar Al Assad's brutal regime in Doha. Al Shara told me we went from being a country that exported crises to a country where we have an actual hope of delivering stability. And yet there are still many wounds to be healed. Just like other countries decimated by war and sectarianism, the work of transitional justice must now take place. A process in which justice is adapted to societies transforming themselves after after war and persecution. It's something that links Syria to the United States, to South Africa and many countries in between with dark pasts which have to be reckoned with in America. Some argue that reparations are the best way to repair the devastating harm inflicted by slavery and racial discrimination. But it's a proposal that's faced so much opposition. Let's get into all of this now. My first guest tonight has has made Transitional justice her life's work. Ruti Teitel is a professor of law at New York Law School and the author of Presidential Visions of Transitional Justice. And Aria Florent is the co founder and CEO of Liberation Ventures, an organization advocating for slavery reparations in the United States. And they join me to discuss the tricky task of making amends. Ruti Teitel, Aria Florent, welcome to the program. Let me start with you here in London, Ruti. So what do we mean when we talk about reckoning with the past? What do you mean?

[Ruti Teitel]

So I wrote and kind of identified a term, transitional justice, which was the way societies deal with the past and radical change when they're in transition from a illiberal past, dictatorship, repressive regime and move to Somewhat more liberal regime. So that was the idea, a political transition. Sometimes it's economic transition, but it's the conception of justice in periods of radical political change.

[Christiane Amanpour]

So give me sort of one or two examples because right now I've been talking to the new Syrian president after 60 years of dictatorship and tyranny, really from the Assad, and he has to deal with transitional justice for the crimes of the past, but also some of the crimes that are being conducted even in the year he's been there. To the minorities.

[Ruti Teitel]

Yes. So actually I'm also involved in the Syrian transition, working with Fadel Abdulghani, who's head of the Syrian Network for Human Rights. And as you say, that's a current example of having to deal with a very extended repressive regime. But also people are concerned about property loss, people are concerned about being victims of other, as you say, current human rights violations. So it's not just Assad. So that's part of the work that civil society groups are doing, such as the work that Aria does in the United States. So there's a lot to do. There's the current regime that is a successor regime. Some other examples that I take up in the book and my first writing was post South Africa, post Argentina military, which is where it was my home country. And what really got me into the topics, all of Latin America coming out of military.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Wow. Another really relevant topic. I'll get back to you soon. So Aria, obviously what we talk about mostly with Ruti is what she does in terms of transitional justice overseas. Although we'll get to her US component, which is very dovetails with yours. You deal with internal United States repair work, so to speak, and obviously the legacy of slavery post civil war. So tell us in general what you stand for in terms of your organization and how you are trying to push that ball forward.

[Aria Florent]

Yeah, our North Star is to see federal comprehensive reparations in the U.S. so our goal is to repair the harm of slavery and its legacies. And importantly, we think about reparations comprehensively, not just financial, but also non financial. So we define reparations really in essence as repair. And we think about it as a four part framework of reckoning, acknowledgement, accountability and redress. And our goal is not just to see policy change, but also to see culture change. Because we know that actually the policy change is only as durable as the culture change that comes with it. And so that's why our approach is really about sort of bottom up movement building. We resource organizations all across the country who are accelerating this movement.

[Christiane Amanpour]

So I'm really interested in the culture change part of this because we've seen a lot of progressive policies that then get completely, you know, backlashed against even a black president. There was a backlash against the first black president in the United States. And we've seen the anti. De. Yeah. And throughout. Throughout history, there's been a lot of resistance under Democrats or Republicans to the notion of reparations for what happened under slavery. Is that word out of use? Out of fashion? Is it. When I say out of use, is it not useful to use the word reparations?

[Aria Florent]

I think it's very useful. You know, we see ourselves as in the lineage of transitional justice. And we know that reparation is a tool of transitional justice. It has been used for communities all over the world. It's not a black specific term. You know, descendants of Holocaust victims are still receiving reparations to this day. And so I think it's actually important that we use the word because it is. If we chose not to, it would be like we're denying actually the dignity that black Americans really deserve.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Your original writing, you told me one of the early pieces of writing you did was about reparations or repair after the Civil War. That coupled with the idea that Aria just reminded us that Jewish victims of the Holocaust, their descendants are still getting paid reparations and done, you know, the right thing is being done for them. Why is it okay for a certain society or community and apparently sends everybody bristling if it's another.

[Ruti Teitel]

Well, obviously, it's a very good point. There can be reparations that are punitive. Woodrow Wilson opposed the reparations that Europe exacted on Germany where they said that they should pay for the entire. The damages of the entire war, total war guilt. So those are punitive reparations. So I think we would agree that we're not for those. And then there are, like, expiatory reparations, which is kind of what Germany thought they were doing. The German word was Wieder Guttmachung. Making it good again. Well, it's fun because the Jewish community after World War II, and the Jewish community did not accept that. They accepted whatever Germany would give to Israel and to individual victims. But so I think it's really the transformative purpose that we're talking about. Right? Not the punitive, not the expiatory. And then I think the question is, is money the best approach? Individual reparations or as. And I think Aria's organization promotes this. A kind of an idea of in kind. And actually the Freedmen's Bureau. After the end of the Civil War, the Freedmen's Bureau promoted health care, education, housing. It ended after a period of time because of opposition by Andrew Johnson, who unfortunately succeeded Lincoln after the assassination. And then the rest is history, where, you know, it ended up being much more pro Confederate and returned to trying to return to business as usual. But, you know, we had a. Where some idea of that was necessary, of what would it take for social transformation. And I think that's really the key to the work that liberation benches.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Okay, so that was the end of the 19th century, and now we're well into the 21st century. Aria. And there appears to be a complete backlash against. Even now. I mean, all these decades, centuries since the Civil War, it's happening again. So what is it about the culture in the United States that has not been conditioned or whatever? It hasn't been accepted yet. Why has there been no Truth and Reconciliation Commission, for instance? At the very least.

[Aria Florent]

It'S such a good question, you know, and I think on the topic of backlash, I actually think backlash is one of the best KPIs for progress. Key performance indicator. You only see this kind of backlash when we are actually making progress. But, you know, to answer your question, I think that the deepest root of this challenge is shame. I think that we feel an immense amount of collective shame, moral injury, around the history of this country. And we know from the research on shame that the best way to process through shame is to really bring it to light. I mean, you cannot repair something if you can't face it. And I love what Ruthie is talking about when it comes to the sort of transformative potential of this work, because I think actually, if we could face it and we could repair it, we would actually live into the highest ideals of our country. We would actually build and be able to truly maintain a just multiracial democracy for everyone.

[Ruti Teitel]

Yeah, for sure. And, you know, change can come from the top and from civil society. So that's part of the minutest book is really about leadership and the kind of.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Yeah, yours is from the top.

[Ruti Teitel]

Exactly. Political actors.

[Kate Shaw]

Yes.

[Christiane Amanpour]

And Aria is from Grosvenor.

[Ruti Teitel]

Exactly.

[Christiane Amanpour]

So let me ask you about leadership, because your book opens with President Obama's travels to Argentina, which you mentioned, Cuba, Japan, Laos, Vietnam, to acknowledge America's historical wrongdoings. But of course, the opposition, the political right in America, dubbed it, quote, an apology tour. So how do you get past that if half the country doesn't even think it's a valid concept?

[Ruti Teitel]

Well, it's interesting it's always a thin line. I don't call them apologies.

[Christiane Amanpour]

No, you don't.

[Ruti Teitel]

His political. No, I understand. It's a thin line. And I think Obama walked that thin line very well because he knew how much he needed to do to reset foreign relations. If you think about bearing the Cold War, as he said, a reset in Latin America, he talked about the importance of respectful dialogue in both the Americas and in Asia. He went to Vietnam, you know, he went to places that were, you know, just sites, burial sites. Laos, the most bombed city in the world, went to Hiroshima as a standing president and stood side by side with the leaders there. And he said, you know, we need to acknowledge the past and we need to move forward. He never said we shouldn't have. You know, he didn't fully say an apology for Hiroshima. So he walked a thin line between reception abroad, our foreign facing reception, and the reception at home.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Okay.

[Ruti Teitel]

And it's interesting because even the surveys at the time of his Cuba trip showed that many Americans supported that, you know, having some kind of normalization in the Americas and restoring relations throughout.

[Christiane Amanpour]

The other side of that question is, I just want to know from you, I think I know the answer, but what has this acknowledgement of past wrongdoings done for those. What would you say to those who believe in America first and the best America and that kind of renormalization of relationships that include acknowledging past wrongs, is America stronger for having a better relationship with Vietnam, with Cuba, with Laos, all those others?

[Ruti Teitel]

For sure. And we see that even if Trump said, tried to denounce the apology tour and ran against Obama, as you say, that racial issues and against soft power. Soft power matters and justice matters if you want to have an enduring peace. And you know, what's very interesting about the trip to Asia is we realigned with Vietnam, with the Koreas, South Korea at least, and vis a vis China. And that carried through in the Biden administration. It's carried through to Trump. So he is building a realignment and a re. Regionalization of Asia that, you know, that builds on Obama, that builds on those priorities.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Well, it's a little dicey right now because he's actually doing a lot of tariffs and alienating his allies. But I get you your point. Ish. If it can be redressed. But, Aria, regarding US Repair and reparations, a few weeks ago, the governor of California, Gavin Newsom, signed legislation that would create. I mean, I see you nodding. Obviously, you know better than me, a state agency to determine who actually qualifies as a descendant of slavery. Progress is, you know, quite slow on all of this. Tell me, what do you think of that legislation? Is that going to help?

[Aria Florent]

You know, I commend Governor Newsom for the bills that he has passed. I want him to do more. As our partners in California also want him to do more. I look forward to the governor's race in California. But, you know, I think something that we've learned from reparations efforts all over the globe is that this work is iterative. This work takes time, and that's why it is not only policy change work, but culture change work. And I think Riti would know. As you know, I think this work needs to build on itself. And I think that's what we're seeing at the city and state level across the country. And that's why our approach is bottom up, because you can actually learn from the policies that you see implemented at the local level, use them to inform other places, and then ultimately use them all to inform what's possible at the national level.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Aria. I mean, a very disappointing pew. Or maybe it's not pew disappointing. Maybe it's a normal, you know, percentage. 2021 research center poll said 68% of Americans say the descendants of enslaved people in the United States should not be repaid. So that's one thing. My other question on that is, isn't storytelling one of the most important ways of getting, you know, culture to change? Has enough of. Has enough storytelling been done?

[Aria Florent]

It's a great question. So our. Our latest public opinion polling shows that 36% of people support reparations, comprehensive reparations, and that's actually 10 percentage points higher than support was for marriage equality when that movement got started. So I think it's actually really important to put those numbers into perspective. We see the way that public opinion can change over time when you do exactly that, when you tell stories, and when you really show people the need for this work. And so that's why an entire pillar of our work is actually narrative change work, because we want to actually tell a new story to the country about what reparations are and who they're for and why they matter, and in particular, why. This is not just about black Americans. This is about all Americans. This is about a really, truly collective approach to actually repairing the harm of slavery that hurts all of us, and therefore repairing it would benefit all of us.

[Christiane Amanpour]

It's amazing. That percentage you were talking about with marriage equality just shows how stories can develop momentum if they're told in a relevant way. Lastly to you, we talked A little bit. We just mentioned South Africa. Well, obviously, the truth and reconciliation, it wasn't perfect, but it was good and it set the country on a different path. What about Syria right now? It's been a year since Al Sharra took over from Assad. What does he have to do and what are they doing?

[Ruti Teitel]

So I think it's very important to have an inclusive process where, you know, victims and other, you know, representatives of different groups feel represented in the process and not to rush. And my concern is that he seems to be rushing to have a transitional justice plan, like, you know, tomorrow. And, you know, I'm working with people in, you know, that have been working on Syrian victimhood and on the various kinds of violations. Very important to document property loss. Not just victims, you know, not just casualties, because we need to plan for the future in Syria. And there has been theft, there's, been, you know, exploitation and so forth. So I think that it's very important to have an inclusive process. That's what I think is most important for transitional justice and not to rush. You know, we've seen unfortunately, and, you know, Barack Obama's Cairo speech, 2009, two years later, talk about storytelling and about, you know, acknowledgements having something of a role. You know, you had the Arab Spring after that visit to Cairo, and yet very few of the transitional justice programs that were, you know, that were created right after have, you know, have borne out, you know, successfully. So including Tunisia. So it's disappointing. But, you know, as Aria has mentioned, there are cycles and this moves step by step. So the idea that this has to be perfect, you know, right after these successor regime takes over, given the violence that still exists right now in Syria, I think that would, you know, that's problematic.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Well, this is a conversation to be continued because it's a real live issue, obviously. Ruti Teitel, Aria Florent, thank you so much indeed for joining us.

[Ruti Teitel]

Thank you.

[Aria Florent]

Thank you so much for having me.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Coming up with tensions flaring over migration policies in many Western countries, the new face of anti migrant protests here in the uk that's after the break. Tab. I got news for your ears, the podcast. I am your host, Michael Ian Black.

[Michael Ian Black]

Speaking of American culture being crushed and going away, I give you exhibit A.

[Kate Shaw]

Sylvester Stallone kiss and Gloria Gaynor, Michael Crawford and George Strait, all honored for their influence on American culture and the arts. They received the first redesigned awards featuring a navy blue ribbon which replaces the iconic rainbow one which the White House described as tacky.

[Jomana Karadce]

Well, they were.

[Michael Ian Black]

Whoa, whoa, whoa, wait.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Back that up, back that up.

[Ruti Teitel]

Sit down on my gold toilet while I show you what's tacky.

[Kate Shaw]

Have I got news for your ears.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Releases new episodes every Wednesday. Don't miss an episode. Follow us wherever you get your podcasts. From the United States to France to the uk, there's no denying this is a time of rising tensions over the issue of immigration. And here in England, one anti migrant group seems to be building a base. It's called the Pink Ladies and gentlemen. But behind the cheerful branding is a much harsher message. Correspondent Jomana Karadce went to one of their rallies and here's her report. Now you won't stop talking.

[Jomana Karadce]

Meet the Pink Ladies, a new face of Britain's growing anti immigration movement. We went to one of their pink protests just outside London to try and understand what this is all about.

[Orla Minihane]

We've got our own scumbags, our own predators and our own sex pests. We do not need to bring more every day. Men from cultures that do not think like we do, who treat women like third class citizens and who think it's acceptable to marry eight and nine year old girls.

[Jomana Karadce]

This is not racism, they say, and they're not the far right. But a lot of what we heard sounded an awful lot like the far right's narrative.

[Orla Minihane]

I need to get the army involved. We're being invaded.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Well, it's bloody terrible, but it's all.

[Michael Ian Black]

Over Europe, you know, being invaded by illegal migrants.

[Jomana Karadce]

Advocacy groups say exploiting the issue of violence against women and genuine safety concerns is a common far right tactic. The Pink Ladies say they're grassroots women concerned about mass migration and what it means for their safety and the future of their country, putting out catchy tunes like this one that market their agenda. The so far small group emerged a few months ago at a time of rising tensions over migration, with the far right seizing on that. A lot of people looking at what's happening in the UK from the outside, they might say that a lot of the things that you are saying are the talking points of the far right.

[Orla Minihane]

What is far right? Far right is extremists. Far left is extremism. How am I extremist? I'm just a mum who's worked her whole life, who's bringing up three children, who lives in suburbia. I don't want my daughter to be sexually assaulted by men that have come over to this country that we've got no, no background checks on. If that makes me a far right, then there's something very, very concerning with the rhetoric.

[Jomana Karadce]

Right, that's Orla Minihane. She's a local candidate for the right wing populist party Reform uk. Amid this show of pink solidarity and what was mostly a jovial and at times surreal atmosphere, we heard from women worried about their safety and that of their daughters.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Women are scared to walk anywhere and you know, we live in a small town.

[Orla Minihane]

This is the seriousness of what we're dealing with.

[Jomana Karadce]

The government doesn't publish detailed figures on crimes committed by asylum seekers, but there have been some high profile cases that have put women and girls on edge. On top of that, there are the twisted facts that go unchecked.

[Orla Minihane]

These five women have died, have been murdered at the hands of an illegal migrant catastrophe that this government is letting happen.

[Jomana Karadce]

Except two of the suspects in these five horrific murder cases are British nationals. But for Laura and others, what they heard here was enough for them to make up their minds. What is it that is making you feel unsafe?

[Orla Minihane]

Well, it's all the rapes, murders, you know, what they've been talking about today.

[Jomana Karadce]

Jomana Karache, cnn, Chelmsford, England.

[Christiane Amanpour]

How far would you go to stand up to tyranny? Could you risk your life for freedom? In his new book, the Traitor's Circle, journalist Jonathan Friedland examines those questions and an extraordinary story of heroic resistance. It follows a group of well connected priv Germans who secretly stood up against Hitler's regime until a shocking betrayal from within. And Jonathan Friedland joined me here in the studio to discuss. I want to start with what you've taken on as a bit of a mission, I think, because I think you've said that, you know, there are many stories of resistors but almost no stories of internal German, maybe even members of the Nazi party, I don't know. But German resistance to Hitler's regime. Tell me about that.

[Michael Ian Black]

Yeah, it's true. I think we have an image of resistance often associated with the French resistance, putting bombs on railway lines and on bridges and so on in Germany. I think people know about the von Stauffenberg plot. July 20, Valkyrie, the movie with a slightly miscast Tom Cruise. People know about that or they know about the White Rose movement. Sophie Scholl. And that's really it. They think after that all the other Germans pretty well lined up behind Adolf Hitler. And look, that is mainly true. 95%, according to an estimate by an Allied liberator, a war crimes investigator in 1945 fell in line. But it means about 3 million Germans, which is not nothing. That's not nothing, were jailed, were arrested, were detained for crimes of dissent, sometimes no more than a critical remark. And about half a million of those.

[Christiane Amanpour]

I mean, that's really important to hear because I remember for me, Daniel Gullhagen's book, you know, Hitler's Willing Executioners is. Is what I have in my mind.

[Michael Ian Black]

Yeah.

[Christiane Amanpour]

And to hear this is very rare.

[Michael Ian Black]

And I grew up with that narrative quite directly. My mother imposed a full boycott of German goods in our house. No VW car, no Siemens dishwasher, because her own mother had been killed by the last rocket of the Blitz to fall on London. The last V2 killed her mother when my mother was just eight years old. And after that she was left with a kind of feeling that there were no good Germans. Every last one of them was implicated very particularly in the crime of the Holocaust. The bomb that killed my mother's mother, took out a building in London's east end, killed 133 people. 120 of them were Jews. Just a coincidence, but it meant, as I put in the book, my mother was not a Holocaust survivor, but she felt the breath of the Shoah on her neck. And it meant she felt that there were irredeema. There was an irredeemable guilt about the Germans, every last one of them. I then came across this story and thought, it's true that most fell in line, but some did not. And that makes the heroism all the more extraordinary.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Your book begins. I mean, it's a thriller as well. At an afternoon tea party in Berlin, as we said in 9.43. So the party goers are a group that could come from maybe an Agatha Christie.

[Jonathan Friedland]

No.

[Christiane Amanpour]

German aristocracy, as you say, of the diplomatic core. High placed government officials. So what made this. We're now talking about the story of your book, which is a true story. What made this tea party special and how does it play into your story?

[Michael Ian Black]

Well, here might be a time for me to just read this little extra, just these couple of paragraphs, because it says they were drawn from the upper reaches of German high society, from the world of grand townhouses and country estates, of knights at the opera and embassy balls. They had titles and jewels and impeccable contacts. They were the last people to be subject to an arrest at dawn. And they were not a random collection of individuals coincidentally picked up on the same January day. They were a group made up of people who had secretly opposed the Nazi regime for the best part of a decade, meeting and operating in the shadows, spreading the word, combining their unique talents, saving lives. But now they stood accused of the crime regarded as the gravest possible offense in Hitler's German treason. They were branded traitors to the Third Reich.

[Christiane Amanpour]

And what brought them together? How did they decide to form this group?

[Michael Ian Black]

The grouping was, in a way, informal. There were all these overlapping social circles in the Germany of that time. And one of the key issues when any more than two people met was trust. Could you trust this other person you were speaking to here? The bonds of class played an important part. These were really posh people here. There wasn't just one countess in this group, there were two. There was a form top Mandarin from the Ministry of Finance. Those were people with, you know, landed estates and so on. So there was a sense that we know each other. You know, there were two people there. One her father had served under in Bismarck's cabinet, the other his uncle. They knew each other. That was good enough. So what they had in common was this defiance or resistance of Adolf Hitler. They felt they could come together with kindred spirits trading information, gossip even, but also know how on how to do what they were doing. What they did not know is that someone sitting around that table who they thought was one of their own, thought was a kindred spirit, was about to betray all the rest of the Gazette.

[Christiane Amanpour]

And had infiltrated specifically.

[Michael Ian Black]

That's right. I mean, because it's a whodunit. I don't want to give away too much. I don't want to give away too much. I want readers to be reading this, thinking, is it the former model? Is it the doctor, Is it the headmistress? Who is it?

[Christiane Amanpour]

But the anecdote that we are allowed to talk about is about one of these.

[Kate Shaw]

I think she's.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Yeah, a countess named Maria von Maltzahn. She had a Jewish lover named Hans Hershel. Now, when the Gestapo came to investigate a tip that she was hiding Jews in her apartment, Maria took a potentially fatal gamble to save her lover's life. Tell us what happened. It is extraordinary, that part.

[Michael Ian Black]

It is an extraordinary story. So there were Jews in hiding in Berlin. That's an incredible idea. While they're killing millions in the Holocaust course, There are about 1500 hidden Jews. They were known as submarines. They had to be silent, hidden and below the surface among those, you know. Maria turned her home into an unofficial refuge. She would have like 20 on any one night, hiding in this tiny apartment. Among them her own secret Jewish lover. They devised this plan that if ever the Gestapo came, he would hide in this kind of cavity, this box under a sofa, under the sofa bed. Inside there would be a glass of water, a couple of tablets of codeine to suppress his cough. And she set this system of bolts in there so he could lock himself from the inside. Sure enough, the Gestapo came to call. Pounded on the door. They searched the apartment. He's in there in that box. At one point, she's sitting on the box denying there are any Jews in the building. He's inches below her. They finally are about to prise open the thing, they're wrestling with it. And she says, look, if you're so sorry, there's a Jew here, take out your gun and shoot through the couch right now. And there is this standoff, this moment of silence. Hans, her lover, is waiting there in the box, thinking she's about to ensure that I'm shot, killed now. And she says, just as they are reaching for their holsters, she says, but if you do it, I demand a credit note promising to pay for the repair of the sofa, repairing the upholstery in advance and in right. And she knew the Nazi bureaucrats so well, she knew their mind, that of course they wouldn't want to fill in an expenses form and get permission. And they put the guns back.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Honestly, that's incredible. And that's true.

[Michael Ian Black]

That's a true story. Documented. Everything in here comes from documents, letters, diaries, testimonies, court transcripts, word for word. Even the dialogue of that incredible scene is there in the documents.

[Christiane Amanpour]

I mean, that presence of mind and that willingness to take that gamble is.

[Michael Ian Black]

And the confidence of her class to face them down. I think her class with all of them, I think that plays a big part, that they felt these were the. They felt they were the true Germans, that they were the representatives of a better Germany that had been existed in the past and would exist again in the future.

[Christiane Amanpour]

And formally, wasn't everybody forced to join the Nazi party? What was that? I mean, those people who gathered.

[Michael Ian Black]

So of those people who gathered there was. It's quite true, one of them had quite late 1937, finally under pressure, joined the Nazi party, was convinced that there was no way he was going to have any role, any leverage or power unless he was inside the party and made that age old decision, which was, I'm more use from within than just protesting on the outside. There were dilemmas these people went through that will resonate, I think, down the decades. Are you more effective keeping your head down, keeping silent, or making a big loud noise, even if, if that lands you in trouble, should you make common cause with other people? Should you wait a bit, see how it plays out? Those were the things they wrestled with and those are the dilemmas. People who've lived in authoritarian societies will be familiar with down the decades in many other places.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Can I ask you a question? You know, you've written this about these people, Germans, who, like your mother, wanted to believe that everybody was guilty, et cetera. Given the real politicization and the terrible feelings that there are all over the place right now and everything is weaponized, do you get any backlash for this? Are there people who say to you, how can you, you know, a member of the Jewish community, actually tell these stories?

[Michael Ian Black]

A few people have wondered about it, saying, what would my mother think about this? They haven't said it necessarily in a hostile way, but I think my. But they have asked it, and I think that there is. I hope that there is something sort of healing about somebody who, you know, a Jew like me who was raised on those stories in no way exonerating the German nation. I mean, that fact I mentioned before, 3 million of dissenters is a big figure, but so is the 95% who stayed in line and raised their right hand in a Hitler salute. Both are true, but I think we don't do any service to history if we exclude and just pretend those people who were brave and defiant, who took enormous risks, where the only possibility was downside for them. They had nothing to gain. These people were of such established position, they would have been left alone. They would have been fine if they'd just kept their heads down. That makes their heroism all the more admirable.

[Christiane Amanpour]

It's really fascinating. And now one of the through lines is of this group, religion.

[Michael Ian Black]

Yes.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Many of these Germans were devout Christians, believers on authority, higher than the regime. What role did religion play in this particular group?

[Michael Ian Black]

Well, I think you've put your finger on it. I think the connecting thread in this group, and people always ask themselves when they look back at this, what would I have done? And they asked that meaning, what does it take to be the sort of person who resists? They want to know, is there a type, personality type? The connecting thread with this group is they believed in an authority higher than Adolf Hitler. For some, it was their class, it was the aristocracy. We'll be here long after this horrible little man has gone. For others, it was Jesus Christ, it was God. They believed that when the Gestapo knocked on the door. Yes, that's frightening to be called to account by the SAS or the Gestapo, but ultimately they're going to be held to account by Jesus, by God is how they saw it. And they needed to be able to, as it were, look their maker in the eye. And feel they did the right thing once they had made that decision. That gave them the confidence to face down the authorities and to engage even in the small gestures. Just one story I always particularly like because I think people should have a broader definition of resistance. Yes, some of these people were involved even in a plot to kill Hitler, one of them. But there's another who made it her habit. She's one of the two countesses and.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Women played a big part.

[Michael Ian Black]

Six of these nine or 10 people in that group were women. That's itself fascinating. We might come onto something about them. But this one young woman, she was very fearful. She wasn't sort of gung ho. She made it a point of always walking around the streets of Germany, of Berlin with two bags of heavy shopping. Why? Because if she ran into someone who greeted her with a Hitler salute, she would not be able to reciprocate. They would raise their right arm and she would go, sorry, my hands are full. It's a tiny thing. It's just a gesture.

[Christiane Amanpour]

No, but it's big.

[Michael Ian Black]

It's big because she understood instinctively if everyone did what she did, eventually there would have been no Hitler salute. It's just that one individual doing one gesture, one striking out for resistance, that can make all the difference. And there were several women in here in this story, and they too, have something fascinating in common.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Well, I want to know much more, but our time is up for this time. And really, really an edge of your seat tale and important. And Jonathan Friedland, thank you so much.

[Michael Ian Black]

Thanks so much.

[Christiane Amanpour]

Coming up, is the Supreme Court about to give Trump even more power? A discussion on a case with vast implications for the future of the United States after the break. Now, President Trump could be about to amass even more power. The Supreme Court is hearing arguments in a case that will decide whether the president can fire the heads of virtually all independent agencies. This would be a major transfer of power from Congress to the White House. And it's just the latest case testing the limits of presidential power from tariffs to birthright citizenship. Our next guest believes the court is dismantling guardrails that have protected Democratic rights for decades. Kate Shaw is a professor of law at the University of Pennsylvania, and she's here now discussing all of this with Michelle Martin.

[Jonathan Friedland]

Professor Kate Shaw, thank you so much for joining us.

[Kate Shaw]

Thank you so much for having me.

[Jonathan Friedland]

You're a constitutional scholar. You're a law professor. Back in April, you wrote an opinion piece for the New York Times where you opened with. For weeks, Americans have been debating whether we're facing a constitutional crisis. My answer, for the record, is that we are. And why did you say that?

[Michael Ian Black]

That.

[Kate Shaw]

Well, I think for a couple of reasons. I think we have and have had since January a president who is pushing the bounds of executive authority in ways we just haven't seen before. And that in and of itself is not, to my mind, enough to constitute a real constitutional crisis. But I think the crisis comes in, in the failure to meaningfully push back on those outsized assertions of presidential power. And I mean to push back both by Congress and by the Supreme Court. So I think when you have the separation of powers as out of whack as we have for the last year, that is a genuine constitutional crisis. And if anything, I think it has gotten more serious since I wrote that op ed back in April.

[Jonathan Friedland]

So let's fast forward to the present moment, starting with the big case in front of the justices this week, Trump v. Slaughter, which asks whether the president can fire the heads of independent federal agencies at will. Now, that's exactly the kind of question that engages a scholar like you, but that a lot of people kind of just living their lives might be thinking, well, why is that such a big deal? Why is that such a big deal?

[Kate Shaw]

Well, so Congress and the president working together, have passed laws, creating agencies, right? Agencies that often work in invisible ways but that impact all of our lives. So they do things like regulate the safety of ordinary household products or the cribs that we put our kids in. They issue regulations around things like air that we breathe and water that we drink. They protect consumers both their privacy and their right not to to have companies engage in monopolistic behavior. So there's just an enormous array of work that agencies do. And some of the agencies that do that work, Congress has decided for over a century, should kind of operate with a degree of independence from the president and the political wins. And that kind of agency is traditionally known as an independent agency. And agencies, whatever their structure, do respond to the president. The president has lots of ways to influence every agency in the government. But the idea of these independent is the president cannot just fire at will the people who sit at the heads of those agencies. So that includes bodies like the Federal Reserve, the Federal Trade Commission, the securities and Exchange Commission, a lot of regulatory bodies that there might be good reason to insulate from politics. And for almost 100 years, the Supreme Court has said the president can't just fire at will the heads of those kinds of bodies, including the Federal Trade Commission. And the question of whether the Supreme Court will continue to adhere to that long standing rule that limits presidential power is the one before the court in the Slaughter case where the justices are being asked to overrule a 90 year old precedent that allows those agencies to exist with a degree of independence from the President.

[Jonathan Friedland]

As briefly as you can, just remind us of the facts of this case, why? How did it come before the court?

[Kate Shaw]

This is just a case where the President fired a Democratic commissioner on the Federal Trade Commission and didn't say he was firing her because she'd engaged in any kind of, of, you know, malfeasance or misconduct just because he disagreed with the direction that she wanted to take the agency in, which was one that, in her own words. So Slaughter, the commissioner has basically said the FTC should be aggressively regulating a lot of companies, including companies that are very close to the President. The heads of some of the companies the FTC is currently suing were the ones flanking the President at his inauguration. But that's kind of what independence means. And I think it's pretty clear that President Trump did not want agencies like the FTC to exercise that degree of independence. And so he fired this commissioner. She filed a lawsuit basically saying my firing was unlawful. And that's the question that the court is addressing.

[Jonathan Friedland]

You have written that granting the president at will removal power would be, quote, a vast transfer of power from Congress to the President, even though, as you put it, the Constitution does not explicitly grant the President any such power. We don't know how the court is going to rule here, but just the commentary from their questions, the precedents that they've set so far, seems to be that they are very, at least the conservative supermajority on the court seems very ready to give the President sort of maximum discretion. Why do you think they're so willing to do that?

[Kate Shaw]

And you're right, we don't yet know how the justices will rule. But I would be willing to place a very large wager on the likely outcome in this case based on the tenor of the questions, and that is that President Trump will win and this old precedent will be overruled. But to your deeper question, why are they so enthusiastic about presidential authority and skeptical of restraints on that authority? I mean, I think that a majority or a supermajority of the court is under the sway of this unitary executive theory, this theory that's really a product of the 1980s and the Reagan administration that says the President has to have complete control over essentially everyone in the executive branch, including the heads of independent agencies. Anyone who executes the law. And that means he can fire at will essentially any high level official in the executive branch. We don't yet know whether that reasoning will extend to, you know, civil servants in the federal government, but it well could. And to my mind, it's a theory that is inconsistent with the text of the Constitution, which doesn't give the President the power to fire anyone. And it's inconsistent with, with history. You know, there's a lot of kind of cross currents in our history, but I think it's pretty clear that at the very least, the framers disagreed about certain aspects of presidential power. There was no strong consensus the President should be able to fire at will everyone in the executive branch. And I think the better reading of the history is that the framers would have wanted Congress to be able to place some constraints on the President's authority in the way these laws do.

[Jonathan Friedland]

Well, tell us about the birthright citizenship case and tell us why you think it's possible that the Trump administration might not prevail as it has in so many other cases before this court.

[Kate Shaw]

Yeah, so this is one of the first acts that President Trump took when he was inaugurated for the second time as president, which was to issue an executive order purporting to end birthright citizenship, the principle that individuals born on US Shores are citizens full stop, regardless of the citizenship status of their parents. This principle traces back very clearly to the first, first sentence of the 14th Amendment, which conferred citizenship on newly freed, formerly enslaved persons and also all persons born in the United States right on its shores. Congress has passed multiple statutes reaffirming the principle of birthright citizenship. The Supreme Court has confirmed that the text means what it says. And yet in the face of all of that settled consensus, the Trump administration issued an executive order basically saying we are unilaterally ending birthright citizenship. And I think that that what I just said about how clear the consensus across all the branches of government and essentially across 150 years has been that this is a constitutional principle the President cannot undo. I think that all of that will make it very, very difficult for the Supreme Court to uphold this executive order. Every lower court to have looked at the executive order has found it clearly unconstitutional. The Supreme Court encountered a case last spring involving not the constitutionality of this executive order, but essentially the power of courts to issue what are known as nationwide injunctions, so rulings that bind even non parties to the case. The Supreme Court basically said lower courts don't have that power. But another case that kind of gets around some of the procedural Kind of limitations the Court announced in that case is now back before the court. It will be argued in the spring. And the Court can't avoid answering the substantive question of whether this executive order is lawful. And I just don't see a very significant likelihood that the Court will uphold.

[Jonathan Friedland]

In another opinion piece published in the Times this week, you wrote that the Court is, quote, overturning the 20th century. And when you look across cases about presidential power, voting rights, immigration, agency authority, civil rights remedies, and the Court's own procedures, do you think that they see it that way?

[Kate Shaw]

I think they believe they are restoring correct legal understandings. I think that in some ways, we are still in this kind of backlash. Court so the conservative legal movement's birth in the Reagan administration in the 1980s was largely a reaction to the Warren court from the 1950s and the 1960s, which broadly construed the Constitution's guarantees, the equal protection of the laws, the right to liberty, and the right not to be deprived of liberty without due process of law. These are these core provisions of the 14th Amendment that the white Warren court really expansively interpreted. And I think the conservative legal movement very self consciously wanted to roll back both some of those specific decisions, but also the method of constitutional interpretation that those decisions reflected. And so I think this is still part of that larger project of kind of fundamentally changing the way we understand the Constitution and a lot of its provisions. And I think that has certainly we've seen that with respect to voting rights, which the Court has really curtailed in the Shelby county case involving Section 5 of the Voting Rights act, and likely in the case Louisiana vs Calais, the court will decide likely very soon regarding the last big remaining pillar of the Voting Rights Act. The Court has allowed partisan gerrymandering, which didn't overturn a precedent, but certainly inaugurated an era in which partisan gerrymandering is happening without any kind of limitation under federal law, disempowering agencies, while empowering the president. I mean, these are fundamental changes to the way we live and the kind of government that we live under. The Court has asserted a great deal of power for itself. It has really limited many of the actions that Congress has taken, including things like passing the Voting Rights act and repassing it with close to unanimous support in Congress, signed into law, authorized and reauthorized by Democratic and Republican and Presidents alike. And yet the Court has unilaterally decided that the Voting Rights act essentially went too far and is inconsistent with the proper understanding of the Constitution. And so I do think that they, if you put together the pieces, I think that there is a very strong case they are fundamentally overhauling much of kind of settled law and governance. And I'm not sure they would totally disagree with that, although I think they have pursued it in, you know, these kind of discrete, dominant.

[Jonathan Friedland]

Part of your original point here is this is an incredible aggregation of power toward the President, but also away from Congress. So where is Congress in all this? Who is standing up for the institutional imperatives as outlined in the Constitution? The way we all learned it in middle school, three branches.

[Kate Shaw]

A huge part of the problem and the kind of constitutional crisis that we started off talking about is that Congress has been either asleep at the wheel or affirmatively pleased with what it has seen in terms of executive authority in the last year. And I do think it's quite shocking because regardless of the fact that Congress is controlled by the President's co partisans, right, they're Republican controlled, both houses of Congress. The institutional prerogatives of Congress, you would think, would matter at least to a degree to the, you know, extent that standing up against the President's ability to do things like completely ignore congressional decisions about, about funding, and yet we have seen essentially none of that. Now I do think that there has been a little bit of a shift in some of these targeted killings and congressional responses, including responses by some of the members of the President's party suggesting that perhaps Congress is again finding the will to assert its institutional prerogatives and demand explanations for, you know, process lists, executions of individuals on the President's say, so that these are individuals engaged in drug smuggling. Perhaps that is a bridge too far for even a Congress that is largely supportive of this President's policy agenda. And I'm sure the fact that the President's approval ratings are lower than they have been is, you know, emboldening Congress to push back.

[Jonathan Friedland]

You know, there was some talk earlier that the Chief Justice, John Roberts, was concerned about the reputation of the Court, the Court being seen as legitimate. Do you think that really is a concern? And if it is a concern, if the Court is not not seen as a legitimate judicial body, but rather as some do see it as the sort of an extension of the partisan interests of the party in power, what then? What difference does it make?

[Kate Shaw]

Well, so to the extent that the Court, when it is properly functioning, is an important check on overreach by the President and by Congress, by other actors, by states and localities as well, it's enormously problematic for the public to lose faith and confidence in the judgments of The Supreme Court in the independence and impartiality of the Supreme Court. Because the Court's legitimacy and perceived legitimacy is really the only reason that government actors, private individuals, other branches of government, listen to the Court heed its rulings. And sometimes it's really important that the Court's ruling rulings be heeded. Right? It is obviously handed down in other eras, enormously important decisions doing things like concluding that segregated public education is unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment, and that separate but equal is a principle that cannot be reconciled with the equal protection of the laws. Right? So to take one example, obviously, Brown versus Board of Education, it was critically important that the country accept the Court's ruling. There was a lot of resistance. The President, you know, at the time, actually used the federal military to enforce the Court's edict that school desegregation was mandatory and that Brown vs Board of Education was the law of the land. So it's not impossible to imagine, again, a Court that does side with civil rights, equality, liberty. And it's just really important that if and when it does that, that it have the institutional capital to actually command respect for its judgments against. Against those who would want to resist it. And so I think those are the reasons that getting back to a court that actually serves its function, which is protecting rights and facilitating democracy, and largely otherwise kind of stays out of the way of democracy, that is critically important, I think, to a healthy system of separated powers. But I think what we have right now is something very, very far from that.

[Jonathan Friedland]

Professor Kate Shaw, thank you so much for talking with us. Us.

[Kate Shaw]

Thank you so much for having me.

[Christiane Amanpour]

And that is it for now. If you ever miss our show, you can find the latest episode shortly after it airs on our podcast. And remember, you can always catch us online on our website and all over social media. Thank you for watching and goodbye from London.