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- [00:00]
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Graduation season is around the corner and Michaels has everything you need. Whether you're throwing the party of the year or just celebrating your grad's achievement. Start with a Class of 26 banner, then add party supplies and frame photos that'll have everyone remembering when. Then bring the wow factor with balloons. Order ahead for delivery or in store pickup. Shop now to create a celebration as special as they are.
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Hi, it's Mark Bittman from the podcast Food with Mark Bittman. It is getting warmer and it's time to go outside and start grilling. You can find quality meat, fresh organic produce, seasonal bakery treats. It's all there at Whole Foods Market. Ready to cook beef or chicken, kebabs, corn, asparagus, great on the grill. And Whole Foods has Teton Waters Ranch hot dogs and sausages made from grass fed beef. Shop for all of your summer favorites at Whole Foods Market.
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C
Hey, it's Paige from Giggly Squad. We need to talk about Abercrombie's new summer drop, especially the swim. Just seeing the new coastal inspired prints and patterns is making me want to book a last minute trip to the beach. And Abercrombie made packing for vacation even easier with the launch of Reversible Swim. Perfect for mixing, matching and customizing your look. Prep for Summer with Abercrombie in app, online and in stores.
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D
What's up everyone? Sam here you know the saying that if a tree falls in the forest and nobody is around to hear it, does it make a sound? Okay, well here's a similar one. If a podcast hits the airwaves but doesn't get rated or reviewed, does it make an impact? While you ponder that over, be sure to let us know what you think of the show on your favorite podcast app and send it along to your friends. It really helps us out behind the scenes.
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C
Thanks.
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D
Poop, stool, feces, excrement, whatever you call it, it often falls under the umbrella term of human waste. But what if the stuff we just flush away isn't meant to be wasted? What if it's actually useful? Let me introduce you to the Fecal transplant, a buzzy treatment for certain infections that may even have the ability to treat other inflammatory conditions too. To shed some light on what we can expect from this unique treatment, I'll chat with Dr. James Kinross, author of the book Dark Matter the New Science of the Gut Microbiome. Before then, I'll look into a question that you didn't know you wanted to know the answer to. Trust me, why do humans have chins? Then we'll explore a New study about the effects of beaver dams on climate change. I'm Dr. Samantha Amin and welcome to Curiosity Weekly. Let's get started. Would you believe it if I told you the human chin has been a defining feature of our species? It's true. No other animals have chins like us, not even our closest primate relatives, the chimpanzee. Though they have a lower jaw. Technically, monkeys don't have chins either. Their jawbone slopes down and back from their teeth. But humans, ours is this bony forward protrusion. But why exactly do we have one? It is it a functional adaptation for chewing, a signal for finding a mate, or simply an evolutionary accident? A study published in plos ONE offers a compelling new answer that the human chin is likely a spandrel, an evolutionary byproduct rather than a direct adaptation. Researchers compared measurements of the skulls of 532 adult hominoid specimens, including chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans and humans. To determine why us humans have chins, they looked into three possible explanations. The first idea was that the chin appeared purely by random chance over millions of years. The second idea was that the chin evolved because it provided a specific advantage, like helping with chewing or being attractive to potential mates. The third idea was that the chin didn't evolve for any specific purpose. Instead, it's an accidental side effect caused by other changes in the face. Ultimately, by comparing a genetic family tree, the team found that the chin largely fits the third explanation. It's not a feature built for a job. Instead, it occurred because the jaw had to reshape itself to fit our changing face. As we evolved, our faces shrank and our brains expanded. Walking upright reshaped the base of our skulls. And there was strong selection for reducing the size of the lower face and teeth. Now, here's where the chin comes in. The front teeth and the part holding them shrunk to accommodate a softer cook diet. And then later changes in speech may have further shaped that chin. But the lower part of the jawbone didn't shrink at the same rate. This mismatch in growth rates created a protrusion the chin. This challenges the long held theories that the chin evolved to withstand the stress of chewing or to serve as a signal of mate quality. The human skull isn't a collection of independent parts. It's a highly interconnected system. Changes in one area ripple through the entire structure. Our brains grew and face shrunk. Voila. Now we have a chin. So the next time you rub your chin, pondering the wonders of the natural world, you can ponder this. You are touching a quirk of evolution.
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A
Buying a car is a big deal, so you shouldn't go in blind with the Cargurus app. The new dealership mode is like having a personal cheat sheet in your pocket. Instantly compare the car in front of you to similar options, see deal ratings and price history, and estimate your final price. It's no wonder Cargurus is the number one most visited car shopping site according to SimilarWeb's estimated traffic data. Buy or sell your next car today with cargurusargurus.com go to cargurus.com to make sure your big deal is the best deal. That's C A R guru s.comcargurus.com hi,
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C
it's Paige from Giggly Squad, and this episode is sponsored by Experian Boost Summer Glow Up Check Credit Glow Up. Even better, boost your credit scores instantly by getting credit for bills you're already paying your phone, utilities, rent and insurance. I wish dating kind of worked like that. Connect your bank account, add those on time payments to your Experian credit file, and your FICO score updates right away. You could instantly raise your FICO score by an average of 14 points with Experian Boost. Download the Experian app for free today. Results will vary. Users who received a boost improved their FICO score 8 from Experian by an average of 14 points. See appstore or experian.com for details.
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A
Results will vary. Not all payments are boost eligible. Users who received a boost improved their FICO score 8 from Experian by an average of 14 points. Some may not see improved scores or approval odds. Not all lenders use Experian credit files, and not all lenders use scores impacted by experian boost. See experian.com for details.
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Get it.
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If the eyes are the window to the soul, then poop is the window to the health of your digestive tract, specifically the gut microbiome. Recently, the gut microbiome has become a super hot topic when it comes to keeping our gastrointestinal system healthy and all of our body healthy. One of the most interesting treatments being looked at, the poop transplant, or to be more scientific, the fecal microbiota transplant. And yeah, it's pretty much what it sounds like. Now, there are a lot of claims about the potential risks and rewards of fecal transplants. Dr. James Kinross is here to teach us all about what's really going on when we have someone else's microbiome entering our bodies. Dr. Kinross is an associate professor in general surgery at Imperial College London and the author of the book Dark Matter the New Science of the Gut Microbiome. Thank you so much for joining us for a chat, James.
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F
Sam, the pleasure is all mine. Thanks for having me.
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D
We are all really excited about this topic. I know we had some laughs, but it's also just really fascinating science.
- [08:54]
F
Yeah, I think so too. And really impactful science when we get it right.
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D
Absolutely. So to start us off, could you tell us why we do fecal transplants and what we're trying to accomplish with doing them?
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F
Yeah, sure. So we most commonly give fecal transplants to treat patients who have infections in the gut. And there's one particular infection that we really worry about called Clostridium difficile, which is an infection that typically happens when patients have too many antibiotics. And when you have too many antibiotics, the ecosystem within us collapses. And if you give the ecosystem back through a fecal transplant, you treat the infection. But we give actually fecal transplants in trials, at least in research, for many different other conditions. There's well over 400 randomized controlled trials around the world going on, trialing this. And we do that because the microbes within us, the microbes in the gut, have so many important functions and they're related to so many different disease types.
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D
So you mentioned C. Difficile. I hear it called C. Diff, right?
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F
Yeah.
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D
That's a big, from my understanding, problem in a lot of hospital settings where you have people Post transplant on antibiotics and then that can be a big risk in the hospital. So that's routinely. Fecal transplants are routinely used for that kind of case.
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F
I wouldn't say routinely. Probably about 90% of patients that would be, you know, eligible for an FMT don't get. And the reason they don't get one is either because the clinicians aren't aware that it's a therapy, or they can't access the therapy, or the hospital just doesn't give the therapy. And the first line treatment is still antibiotics. So most patients will still get antibiotics. And we tend to give FMT if those antibiotics don't work or if they have recurrent infections.
- [10:42]
D
And FMT being fecal microbiota transplant.
- [10:44]
F
Correct.
- [10:46]
D
What does that actually look like? How do you do one? Good, I gotta add.
- [10:51]
F
Well, I mean, it's an important question. So the answer is it can literally be a slurry. So what we do is we take a fecal sample from a donor. And of course that donor has to be screened the same way any other patient for a transplant will be screened. So we make sure that they're healthy, that they don't carry pathogens, that they don't have infections, and they don't have underlying chronic diseases that we think the microbiome might be important in causing. And then they have a panel of blood tests, they have a panel of fecal tests. And then once we know that they're safe, then we take a sample of their feces. And then how we take that sample varies. So we used to just take that sample, mix it with some saline effectively and turn it into what was rather unromantically called a slurry. And then that slurry is given to a patient either via a nasogastric tube, so a tube that goes into the nose and sits in the gastric stomach. Or we used to give it via colonoscopy, or we would give it via an, an enema. Now there have been some advances in how we do that. And the reason is because many of the microbes that live within the gut find oxygen very toxic. So if they get exposed to oxygen, they die. And if that happens, that's not so good. We don't think the transplant is so effective. So now we try and sample those patients under what we call anaerobic conditions, so where there's no oxygen. And we've also begun to advance the way we give these interventions. So now what we give is almost like a freeze dried fecal transplant. And again, what we affectionately call a Crapsule. So these are capsulated, capsulated FMTs where you can give a whole dose in the same way. And they also seem to be quite efficacious. I have to say, a lot of my patients sort of squirm a bit when you say you're going to have one. But actually in practice they're pretty innocuous, they're tasteless, they look like a. It just looks like taking a slightly large capsule that you might take for
- [12:42]
D
any other reason, it's freeze dried and then encapsulated. So that probably helps. I was gonna ask, is there a stigma? Like what's the reaction if you talk to a patient and say, hey, we think this would really help you?
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F
Yeah.
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D
Are people receptive or.
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F
So I think it depends on the patient and why you're giving it. So a lot of patients with severe C Diff infections are really seriously unwell and their lives are miserable and the medicines have failed and actually many will just not care. They're just so sick, they just wanna get better. And it's not a big. But I think if you're giving these to patients who have chronic disease or you're giving them, for example, to patients who have irritable bowel syndrome or they have recurrent urinary tract infections, then it can be a conversation and many patients are kind of horrified by the idea of it. For them it's kind of gross. But when you break down the science and you explain why you're doing what you're doing and you explain that actually now a lot of the fnts that we give are manufactured in a clinical process, actually it becomes less frightening.
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D
Yeah, I was going to ask about that. It is a kind of marvel that the body produces the microbiome best, perhaps, but then are there also attempts to create it more in a lab instead of having to get from donors?
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F
So that's a super interesting question. So there's a couple of really important things just to talk about here. The first is that our microbiomes are highly individualized. So your microbiome and my microbiome will be totally different. That might be because we're different ages, we live in, different to the world, we have different diets, we might be different sexes, but it might be because of our genes and it might be because of our environment or a mixture of those two things, but it's really, really individualized. And it doesn't necessarily follow that your microbiome will necessarily replace all of the functions that my microbiome has and vice versa. So actually that Sort of personalization is kind of an interesting challenge that we have in FMT science. So how do you match the right donor for the right recipient? Basically, the second problem that we have is that what we're giving is live microbes. Right. And we're not just giving bacteria. We think in an fmt, actually, you're giving bacteria, you're giving viruses, you might be giving small amounts of fungi, you might be giving archae. There's a really complex community there, and that community's got to live, it's got to grow, and it's got to sustain itself when you put it into that niche. So how you do that is kind of an evolving science, because it's not that easy. You can put living microbes in and they might die if it's a really hostile environment. And then the third idea is, okay, can I just take particular bits of that community or do I need to give the whole. The whole fmt? Now, there are a number of trials that have tried to do that and they've had mixed success, I think it's fair to say. In our lab, we're of the opinion that actually you need the whole fmt, because we think of it literally like an organ transplant. The metabolic functions of the fecal microbiome or the gut microbiome are so complex, so sophisticated, that we actually, it's kind of difficult to reciproc the whole. All of those functions if you just take a couple of those community members and transplant them. But the science is still out on that. We are still really trying to refine. The word is precision of those FMT interventions so we can get the right FMT into the right person at the right time and as safely as possible with a minimum number of bugs.
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D
Yeah, I imagine there's such a gentle balance or careful balance in that ecosystem with all these different. When you're talking about such a big ecosystem with so many components. So when you start thinking about it like that, it's truly fascinating to think.
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F
Yeah, well, I think what I'd say just sort of just interrupt you there, is that we should probably describe what the microbiome is. So the microbiome, in its simplest definition is a collection of all microscopic life forms and all of the things that they need to sustain themselves within a niche. And the thing is that we've got different niches throughout the gut. The gut is just a tube. It's got a top where your mouth is, and of course it's got a bottom. And those niches vary where you are as you go along the gut. And so your small bowel microbiome is completely different to your colonic microbiome, which is different to your oral microbiome kind of obviously. And part of the reason for that is of course that your microbes have evolved or co evolved specific functions that those niches need or those organs need. And that's kind of important because if you're trying to give an fmt, let's say we put a nasogastric tube in, we put a tube in the nose into the stomach, and then we put some slurry down that we might inadvertently put microbes in the small bowel that really aren't designed to be there. We don't know what the consequences of that might be. And it seems from the science that those microbes might stay in the small bowel. They might not go away, they might live there. And the word is terraform. They might re terraform the gut in ways that we don't understand the longer term function of. So how you target those microbes to those niches is a really open question. We don't know how precisely to do that. And so some scientists are starting to think of different ways to give fmt, to give apologies transplants. So for example, now there's some scientists working on oral microbiota transplants. So we're just going to give the microbes you need in the mouth through a salivary microbiome transplant. For example, sometimes we give just enemas because actually we're just trying to target inflammation in the rectum or within, within the colon. We are now seeing the development of vaginal microbiota transplants for treating infertility or for treating recurrent vaginal infections. And we're seeing even things like breast milk microbiota transplants because actually that's a super important ecosystem that also needs to be nurtured. So you can reconstitute these really precise niches and you can give them as therapies in their own right.
- [18:32]
D
And I'm so interested in the donor matching because we know for organ transplants that's one very limiting and very difficult to find. And then you also have to match them. So there's immune compatibility. Is there any sort of immune compatibility issues when it comes to fecal transplants as well? And is there a shortage of volunteers? Are people volunteering?
- [18:55]
F
Well, so people are volunteering and there have been a number of kind of projects to get donors and there's some debate in the community about how we should ask people to contribute specimens. So whether or not they should be paid, for example, or whether or not these things should be done. Charitably, we have this phenomenon of super donors, which is a challenging concept because it says some people's poop basically is super effective, it's super efficient, it's great medicine. And others people's is less so. For some of the trials they've got these kind of golden geese, these patients that sit on the loo the whole time donating sample after sample after sample. And we worry that maybe that those things aren't that scalable and aren't particularly beneficial if you're trying to treat populations. So this is argument about whether super donors are real or not. And you're right. When you're trying to give these live microbes, this whole live community of microbes into a person or into their gut, their immune system has a very big impact on determining how that microbiome transplant is going to engraft, but so does the community of microbes that are already there. So there's this sort of war, molecular war that goes on when you put these new microbes into a niche that might have a dominant set of microbes already in place, that don't really want to be wiped out or have their community outstripped. So there's a kind of microbial conflict that occurs. And of course the microbiome is constantly, it's the kind of puppeteer of the immune system. And so it's constantly having to adapt to this changing environment, which is why it's so difficult to get it to work. You can imagine if you've got anywhere from two to 500 species of bacteria, and then you've got tens of thousands of species of virus, plus a few fungi in a single fmt maybe, you know, certainly tens of millions of microbial genes and they're having to kind of fit in another equally sophisticated and complex ecosystem. You can imagine it's kind of hard to match it and get it right.
- [20:51]
D
So in the short term there is that adjustment period where things are perhaps competing with one another and reaching their own homeostasis. I'd love to hear more about that. But also the long term effects. How stable is it? Does it last? Do you need to go for repeats? And are there like risks long term that we've seen, or, or not?
- [21:11]
F
So just a couple of thoughts that actually I had when you were talking. So the first thing I'd say is that of course the answer to your question really varies on what you're treating and why you're treating it. Now increasingly, the way that we're using these treatments is. The word is adjunct. So as an additional treatment to an established medical therapy. Right. So the best example I can give you would be a particular type of immunotherapy. So in patients who have cancer, we're increasingly using new drugs that allow the immune system to switch on, to detect the cancer and then to kill the cancer. And a good example of that would be a drug or a medicine called a checkpoint inhibitor. And these medicines are amazing, they're transforming cancer outcomes, but they only work in a specific group of people. And we know that some patients will develop resistance to those medicines. And we're using fecal transplant, because when you give fecal transplant in some of these patients, it suddenly makes those drugs work or it stops those drugs becoming resistant and it allows the cancer to be seen by the immune system again. So in those sorts of treatments, you're literally using FMT as a medicine almost. You're using it to reprime, retune the immune system in a sort of halo of tissue around a cancer that we call the tumor microenvironment. And it has this extraordinary impact. And we are using FMT in lots of other chronic conditions where actually the medicine is targeting the immune system. So in those patients, actually you just need that therapy to work over a kind of relatively short period of time, because you just want it to work whilst the drug is working. Now, if you're treating a condition like, let's say, ibs, then it's a wholly different ballgame, because you might be trying to reset an ecosystem in a very nuanced way for a chronic problem. And that can be really hard. So sometimes what we see is that patients will have an initial effect, you'll have an FMT and then that effect will wear off. After about 12 weeks, it goes away. Although there is some data to say that even three years out, actually still have a benefit. And what we're also beginning to understand is that because you're giving live microbes, it's not just giving the fmt, you still gotta feed those microbes, you still gotta work every day to create the niche for those microbes so that they can live and thrive and survive. So an fmt, if you like, increasingly, at least, how I use it in my clinical practice is really just the start. You're kind of seeding the gut, you're putting in those microbes that you need, but then you gotta do the work. And then the work increasingly becomes resetting nutrition, resetting diet, and thinking more holistically about how those Microbes are gonna thrive and survive once they've taken root and they've enabled themselves to grow within the gut.
- [23:54]
D
That's such an interesting dimension because it's a quote unquote, living medicine. I guess that there's this follow up, you gotta let it still survive. It's like keeping a houseplant alive.
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F
But the thing about microbes that quite often people forget is that they're context specific. So your microbes will only treat you as well as you treat them. And increasingly in London or in America or in the west, we treat them really badly because we hammer them with antibiotics constantly, constantly, constantly, right. And then we give them a terrible, well, we give ourselves a terrible diet, like a high in fat, high in processed meats, low in fiber. And only a particular set of microbes will really enjoy that diet. And they will bloom and they will grow. And some of our other microbes find that a really tough environment to grow in. They don't have anywhere near the amount of fiber that they have to thrive and survive. An FMT isn't just a magic solution to that. You can't just put a new set of microbes and expect them to cope equally well in such a hostile environment. So if you're going to have an fmt, it's about thinking, okay, how do I use this as a moment to change my behaviors more sustainably? And sometimes you've got to think like a microbe to be able to do that.
- [25:09]
D
Now, you've mentioned a lot of different diseases where a fecal microbiota transplant or FMT can be helpful. We've seen things everywhere from like type 2 diabetes, claims about cancer, Parkinson's. Can you separate the fact from hype here? Which diseases are actually relevant when it comes to a fecal transplant?
- [25:30]
F
So the reason you're seeing that is that in the early days of microbiome science, there was a huge swathe of association studies between the microbiome and so many different diseases. And what we're now getting into is a different, I suppose, part of that microbiome journey where we're really understanding causation, where we're trying to really understand how the microbiome causes diseases that we think might be relevant to the brain, for example, like autism or neurodiversity or anxiety or depression, these sorts of mental health problems. And there have been lots of experiments to try and apply FMT to those conditions with mixed success. I don't think there's a magic bullet yet there, that's for sure. What I would say is that FMT is a super blunt instrument. It's not a panacea and it's not an easy thing. Just you can tell by the discussion that we've had. Now, if you look at some of the big societies like the American Gastroenterology association or in Britain, if you look at the British side of gastroenterology, they say, okay, for fmt, the only thing that we've really got good evidence for is C. Diff. We've got emerging evidence for colitis. So some use ulcerative colitis patients or Crohn's disease, but still too early to call and they wouldn't agree at the moment that it should be used in routine care. They would say the evidence for things like IBS is still mixed and is still not there yet. And we still can't say for sure that this should be safely used. And then everything else is kind of research, everything else is kind of in the early stages. So, for example, if you're looking at things like FMT for allergies or peanut allergy and FMT for autism, FMT for eczema or skin conditions, FMT for alopecia, these things are research. And we can't say at the moment that they're clinically indicated. I think to me that what I've learned from microbiome science in my career is that there's a critical moment in microbiome function which is in early life. So when you assemble the microbiome and the real importance of the microbiome to human health is in how the microbiome influences organ development, how it primes your immune system, how it sets up the gut to deal with a modern life in an urban environment, which is where the majority of your listeners are probably going to be. And if that goes wrong and it doesn't work like you get a massive antibiotic exposure, your diet is poor, something happens and it's disrupted, then the consequence for the microbiome of your lifetime can be significant. And it's really difficult to reset because we don't know precisely what your microbiome should be when we see you as doctors because you're sick and it's really perturbed and it's already not what it should be. And to me, the value of microbiome science is actually not in. In treating diseases, in preventing disease. It's how you leverage it to prevent disease. And there is an open question about how you do that in early life and whether or not giving FNTs in early life is the right strategy to do it. Clearly it's not a scalable strategy, clearly it's not a population health strategy, but it tells us that we should really be taking more care of our bugs.
- [28:27]
D
I was going to ask you what you see as the future of this treatment method and research. It sounds like that might be a big part of it, that prevention and that baseline characterization, but is there anything else?
- [28:38]
F
So, I mean, the gift for me of the microbiome is in prevention science. The problem is that you'll know this, Sam, there's no money in prevention science. All the money is in treatment, right? So at the moment what we're seeing is precision medicine, precision fmt. So the future is going to be in using deep learning AI sciences to do what we call multiomic analysis of fmt. So what I mean by that is you can study microbial genes, you can study microbial, microbial proteins, you can study the small molecules that they make, and you can create sophisticated models that say, okay, now we've got a really good understanding of the particular functions of those microbes. Now once we know that we can do some interesting things. We can begin to model them on a computer and understand how they're going to behave. We can then begin to do in silico experiments and understand how they might modify a drug if you were to give it with a drug, for example, or you can use it to kind of match a donor to a recipient. And we're also seeing really exciting advances in laboratory in vitro sort of organ on chip systems where we can study how communities of microbes work with the immune system in a human gut, with human cells doing human things. And I think you're going to end up with that kind of precision healthcare where actually we will be able to give FMT in a really precise way as part of maybe an augmented strategy for treating cancer, for treating inflammatory bowel disease, for treating autism, for treating dementia, for these sorts of cond. But I think that is the path we're on.
- [30:06]
D
Thank you so much for joining us on the show, James. That was all so fascinating.
- [30:10]
F
Thank you for having me. It's my pleasure.
- [30:12]
D
Dr. James Kinross is an associate professor in general surgery at Imperial College London and the author of the book Dark Matter the New Science of the Gut Microbiome.
- [30:27]
G
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Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas driving climate change and over the years there have been plenty of ideas on how to slow that process down or soak up and store excess carbon dioxide. Things like injecting carbon deep underground, Direct air capture, or planting more trees. But a new study suggests that there might be an unlikely hero in that global battle against carbon. And that hero is the humble beaver. Scientists measured the carbon captured in a beaver engineered wetland in northern Switzerland, and they found that the area stored up to 100 times more carbon than similar areas without beavers. This particular Wetland stored over 1,000 tons of carbon captured over 13 years. That's pretty impressive for those cute little guys. In this study, the researchers created what they call a carbon budget. It's similar to a spending budget, which tracks money earned and money spent. But a carbon budget measures carbon in and carbon out. With this particular budget, they measured all the biomass, sedimentary carbon storage and water to atmosphere exchanges in a particular wetland. They compiled a ton of data from chemical testing, Hydrological measurements, and greenhouse gas monitoring. The data showed them that the beavers that live there have the ability to turn the landscape into carbon sinks, storing a massive amount of carbon. When a beaver builds a dam on a river or stream, it halts the flow of water, Often creating a wetland. This floods the nearby land and redirects groundwater flow, allowing the dam to capture both organic and inorganic materials. Think about it like this. In a regular river, organic carbon sources things like dead trees or dead animals, they're constantly moving and breaking down, Releasing their carbon into the atmosphere. But when a beaver builds a dam, those materials get trapped, allowing the carbon to settle and get buried in the soil instead of flowing away. Wetlands trap and bury carbon, and the beavers are the most effective creators on those ecosystems. On top of that, the researchers found that even more carbon gets pulled out of the water and pushed down into the groundwater. Where it ends up long term is still kind of an open question, but in the short term, it's a big part of why these wetlands store so much carbon. There is some seasonality to this all. In the summer, when water levels drop, the wetland briefly flips to a carbon source, but it makes up for it across the whole year. In fact, the researchers estimate that if beavers expanded to all of Switzerland's suitable floodplains, Their wetlands could offset Switzerland's annual carbon emissions by 1 to 2%. That's a self sustaining solution that runs all on its own. Most climate scientists agree that it'll take a lot of different forms of carbon sequestering to slow or reverse climate change. So why not thank our beaver helpers, those cute little critters who come to our rescue without us even knowing? For warner bros. Discovery, curiosity weekly is produced by the team at wheelhouse DNA. The senior producer and editorial correspondent is teresa carey, our producer is chiara noni, our audio engineer is nick kharisimi and head of production for wheelhouse DNA is cassie berman. And I'm Dr. Samantha yamileth. Thanks for listening.
- [36:19]
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Unlock efficiency and innovation with HP Copilot plus PCs from America's favorite PC brand. With up to 34 hours of battery life and Microsoft Copilot built in, you can just draft emails and summarize meetings with the fastest, most intelligent and secure Windows PCs ever. Tap the banner to learn more at hp.com need expert advice? Call HP Business Technology Advisors at 1-800-761-8417. ActiveCampaign is the marketing automation platform built for big swings and big dreams with intelligent suggestions, powered by AI and your data. Generate ideas and seconds. Import your brand and create full campaigns with simple prompts. Send personalized messages backed by real time feedback, smart segmentation and effortless reporting that tracks every win. Let's redefine what's possible together. Get started for free@activecampaign.com this is Kat
- [37:17]
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and Nat from Kat and Nat Unfiltered and this episode is sponsored by Michaels. Your destination for all things 2026 graduation. If you've got a graduation coming up, the Party shop at Michael's is your new best friend. It's your one stop shop for everything. Graduation balloons, party decor, tableware, DIY gifting and more. Literally everything you need. All starting at just 1.99. We're all about making life easier and Michaels has made it super simple with ready made balloon bundles, 2026 numbers and even free helium inflation on select styles. Plus you can shop same day delivery or buy online and pick up in store Michaels everything. To celebrate anything, visit Michaels in store or shop online now.
- [38:01]
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