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The following is an encore presentation of Everything Everywhere Daily in the early 1960s, the United States was always a step behind the Soviet Union in the space race, but by the mid-1960s, the Americans had caught up. They didn't have many glamorous firsts, but they were doing increasingly difficult things in space. However, all of that came crashing to a halt on January 27, 1967, when three astronauts died in what was a seemingly routine training exercise. Learn more about the Apollo 1 disaster, how it happened, and how it influenced the future of the Apollo program on this episode of Everything Everywhere Daily. This episode is sponsored by ExpressVPN. Did you know that Internet service providers, including mobile network providers, know every single website you visit? And in The United States, ISPs are legally allowed to sell that information to advertisers? That is just one of many reasons why you need to use a virtual private network, or VPN. 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So in a very real sense, the entire American manned spaceflight program of the 1960s can be thought of as a build up to the Apollo program. The Mercury program was really just a proof of concept that showed that human space flight was even possible. Each of the six missions in the Mercury program went a little further than the one before it. They went from suborbital flights to orbital flights, with the last mission consisting of an astronaut spending a full day in orbit. Having established that space flight was possible, NASA then began the Gemini program. Gemini was going to be something totally different. For starters, all of the Gemini flights would have two astronauts in each capsule, not just one as in the Mercury program. Each mission would test techniques in space that would be a pivotal part of the Apollo program. These included the first spacewalk, the first docking with a remote vehicle in orbit, the first rendezvous with another manned vehicle in space, the first extended duration flight lasting over a week and then eventually two weeks, and finally the highest orbit ever achieved by humans. By the end of the Gemini program In November of 1966, they had answered many of the open questions about living and working in space. It was now time to get to the business of the Apollo program and landing someone on the moon. As with the Gemini program, there were a host of things that had to be tested before there could be a moon landing. The enormous Saturn V rocket had to be tested as well as the lunar module. However, the first priority was testing the new Apollo command and service modules. The command module was the conical capsule where the astronauts would stay. And the service module was the large cylindrical module attached to the bottom of it, which provided propulsion, fuel cells, oxygen, and water. All of the other components of the Apollo program depended on the success of these two components. The first flight of the Apollo program would be an orbital test of the command and service modules. The command module was an early version of the Apollo command modules. There was no docking hatch to connect with the lunar module, which for the purpose of the first test, was fine. The command and service modules were far larger and far more complicated than any spacecraft that had ever flown before. NASA's plan was to launch this mission, which they had designated as AS 204, on February 21, 1967. The crew that was selected for this mission was one of the most accomplished and high profile ones that they could have selected. The command pilot was Gus Grissom. Grissom was one of the original Mercury 7 astronauts and was the second American in space. His Mercury flight was famous for having his capsule sinking after the Mercury program was completed. He was the only member of the Mercury seven that remained in the astronaut corps. Alan Shepard, another of the Mercury 7, was technically still on the astronaut roster. But he had been grounded due to being diagnosed with an inner ear ailment. Grissom was the commander of the very first Gemini mission, Gemini 3. And he was one of the best known astronauts in the program. Second in command was another star of the astronaut corps. Senior pilot Ed White earned his fame by becoming the first American ever to perform a spacewalk. And the third member of the crew was pilot Roger Chaffee. Chaffee was a naval pilot and aeronautical engineer who was selected in the third group of astronauts in 1962. While NASA designated the flight as AS 204, the crew simply called it Apollo 1, which certainly rolled off the tongue better. As part of the preparations for the inaugural Apollo flight, There was extensive testing and training on the ground. And this was par for the course for every space flight. Every system was tested and every procedure was thoroughly evaluated. The Apollo 1 crew was involved with the creation of the command module. And worked closely with the Apollo spacecraft program office. As well as the command modul manufacturer, North American Aviation. One of the concerns the crew expressed about the command module was that there was flammable material inside. In particular nylon netting and Velcro inside the command module that was used to hold things in place. As early as August 1966, there were so many changes that had been made that they had a hard time keeping up with them in their simulator. Gus Grissom took a lemon from his tree at his house and hung it on the command module to express his displeasure. By January 1967, testing and training was entering its final phases. On January 27, the command and service modules were on top of the Saturn 1B rocket on launch pad 34. That day, the crew was scheduled to participate in what was known as a plugs out test. A plugs out test is a test to make sure that the command module can operate when it isn't connected to any external power sources or umbilical cords. This was to be a sort of dress rehearsal. The astronauts would be in their spacesuits. The door of the capsule would be closed. And the atmosphere and pressurization inside the capsule would be the same as during the spaceflight. Because the Saturn Ib rocket wasn't fueled. The entire procedure wasn't considered to be very dangerous. At 1pm the crew entered the capsule in their pressurized spacesuits. After a simulated countdown was stopped, the hatch to the capsule was shut and the countdown resumed. With the hatch shut, the capsule was filled with pure oxygen at a pressure of 16.7 pounds per square inch, or 115 kilopascals, which is higher than that of the atmosphere. The decision to use pure oxygen was to reduce the weight and complexity of a system that would otherwise use oxygen and nitrogen. Pure oxygen had been used in the Mercury in Gemini programs before. And all of those missions had gone off without incident. At 6:31pm something happened. Cries of fire came out from the radio transmissions from the capsule. A fire had broken out inside the command module and due to the high oxygen environment, it spread rapidly. The gases created from the combustion were so great that they caused the pressure inside the capsule to spike and it eventually ruptured. The transmissions from inside the capsule lasted for only five seconds. Crew members rushed to the capsule, but it took them over five minutes to remove the hatch because of how it was designed. When they eventually did open it, they found that all three crew members were dead. The heat inside the capsule was so intense that their spacesuits literally melted. Temperatures were estimated to have reached 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit, or 537 degrees Celsius. This was the greatest tragedy in the history of spaceflight up to this point. The agency was shocked and the entire Apollo program was put on hold. An investigation into the fire was conducted and they managed to piece together what they believed happened. The investigation claimed that the fire started when some part of the electrical system had a spark. The spark then ignited a combustible and corrosive coolant in a nearby tube. Because of the high pressure pure oxygen atmosphere, the fire spread rapidly. The nylon nets, Velcro and even the astronauts spacesuits caught fire in that environment. When the astronauts tried to escape, they couldn't because of the design of the hatch. It was complicated to open and it couldn't be opened inward due to the high pressure inside the command module. The official cause of death given in the investigation was cardiac arrest caused by high concentrations of carbon monoxide. As for the astronauts, they had third degree burns on a third to a half of their bodies. But it's believed that the burns came after they were already dead. Up until this point, the Apollo program was on schedule to meet the Goal set by President Kennedy of reaching the moon before the end of the decade. Now, the entire Apollo program was temporarily halted as NASA undertook comprehensive reviews and redesigns of the Apollo spacecraft. These changes were aimed at significantly improving safety protocols and equipment. They looked at everything in the command and service modules to try to minimize the safety risks to the astronauts. Several major changes to the spacecraft resulted from the Apollo 1 Fire. For starters, materials used inside the spacecraft were replaced with non flammable alternatives wherever possible. Also, the cabin atmosphere during ground tests was modified to a nitrogen oxygen mixed, reducing the fire hazard during launches. A nitrogen oxygen mix was used while the capsule was on the ground. But it was then later replaced with a lower pressure all oxygen atmosphere once it got into space. Likewise, inside the astronauts spacesuits, it would still be 100% oxygen. The decision to stick with 100% oxygen was in part due to the cost and weight of a mixed system. But it was also a concern with astronauts developing decompression sickness or the bends. Nylon in spacesuits was replaced with a new material known as beta cloth. Beta cloth is made out of a woven silica fiber that's similar to glass fibers. The hatch was also redesigned so that it would open outward and not have to fight against the air pressure inside the capsule. It could now be opened quickly in the event of an emergency. Numerous smaller changes were also made, including better insulation of electrical wiring. But perhaps the biggest change was the change in attitude of everyone working on the Apollo program. Just three days after the disaster, Gene Krantz, the director of Mission Control, gave a speech to his staff where he said the from this day forward, Flight Control will be known by two tough and competent. Tough means we are forever accountable for what we do or what we fail to do. We will never again compromise our responsibilities. Competent means we will never take anything for granted. Mission Control will be perfect. When you leave this meeting today, you will go to your office and the first thing you will do there is to write tough and competent on your blackboards. It will never be erased. Each day when you enter the room, those words will remind you of the price paid by Grissom, White and Chaffee. These words are the price of admission to the ranks of Mission Control. End quote. The American manned space program was grounded for 20 months until the launch of Apollo 7 in October of 1968. The delay gave extra urgency to the program when five missions were launched, Apollo 7 through 11, over the course of just nine months. Gus Grissom and Roger Chaffee were both laid to rest in Arlington National Cemetery, and Ed White was buried at the cemetery. At West Point Military Academy. When Apollo 11 landed on the moon, they left behind a medallion with the names of the three crew members from Apollo 1. Later, after the Apollo program had ended, Gene Kranz looked back at how the Apollo 1 disaster was a defining moment in the effort to land a human on the moon. And reflecting back, he said, the ultimate success of Apollo was made possible by the sacrifices of Grissom, White and Chaffee. The accident profoundly affected everyone in the program, and there was an unspoken promise on everyone's part to the three astronauts that their deaths would not be in vain. The executive producer of Everything Everywhere Daily is Charles Daniel. The associate producers are Austin Otkin and Cameron Kiefer. My big thanks go to everyone who supports the show over on Patreon. Your support helps make this podcast possible, and I also want to remind everyone about the community groups on Facebook and Discord. That's where everything happens that's outside the podcast, and links to those are available in the show Notes. As always, if you leave a review on any major podcast app or in the above community groups, you too can have it read on the show.