Fall of Civilizations Podcast - Episode 12: The Inca - Cities in the Cloud

Host: Paul Cooper
Release Date: January 12, 2021

Introduction: The Discovery of Machu Picchu

In 1911, American explorer Hiram Bingham embarked on a quest to uncover the lost city rumored to reside high in the Peruvian Andes. Driven by tales of a grand Inca settlement hidden within the Urubamba Valley, Bingham's expedition led him to what would become one of the most iconic archaeological sites in the world: Machu Picchu.

[01:09] Hiram Bingham: "The view was magnificent. On all sides of us rose the magnificent peaks of the urubamba Canyon, while 2,000ft below us, the rushing waters of the noisy river."

Despite initial skepticism and daunting climbing conditions, Bingham's perseverance unveiled Machu Picchu's intricate granite structures, showcasing the refined architectural prowess of the Inca civilization.

Geography and Environment of the Andes

The Andes Mountains, spanning over 7,000 kilometers across South America, present one of the planet's most challenging landscapes. Positioned along the Pacific Ring of Fire, the region is characterized by seismic activity, volcanic belts, and extreme climatic zones. The mountains act as a barrier, creating diverse environments from the lush Amazon rainforest to the arid Atacama Desert—the driest place on Earth.

[02:04] Hiram Bingham: "Ruins of buildings made of blocks of granite, some of which were beautifully fitted together in the most refined style of Inca architecture."

The eastern side of the Andes channels rainclouds, fostering the vast biodiversity of the Amazon, while the western side remains barren, shaping the Inca's adaptive strategies for survival and expansion.

Early Andean Civilizations: Moche and Nazca

Before the rise of the Inca, the Andes were home to sophisticated cultures like the Moche and Nazca. Between 400 BC and 500 AD, these civilizations excelled in water management, creating extensive canals and roads in the arid Atacama. The Nazca, in particular, are renowned for the enigmatic Nazca Lines—gigantic geoglyphs depicting animals and geometric shapes, visible only from elevated vantage points.

[03:19] Hiram Bingham: "A large settlement did indeed lie here under the dense scrub and undergrowth."

These early societies laid the groundwork for the social and engineering advancements that the Inca would later harness.

Tiwanaku and Wari Contributions

The city of Tiwanaku, near Lake Titicaca, was a precursor to the Inca Empire, renowned for its monumental stone structures like the Gate of the Sun. The Wari civilization succeeded Tiwanaku, introducing expansive water control systems and administrative frameworks that emphasized centralization and large-scale construction.

[24:26] Unnamed Inca Historian: "He made some people from stone... he set them aside and then made another province, forming them of stones."

The Wari's architectural and administrative innovations significantly influenced Inca expansion and governance, providing a blueprint for managing a vast empire.

Rise of the Inca Empire under Pachacuti

The Inca Empire's transformation from a small highland tribe to a dominant South American power is attributed to King Pachacuti Inca Yapanqui. Ascending to the throne around 1438, Pachacuti spearheaded extensive construction projects in Cusco, the new imperial capital, and led military campaigns that expanded the empire's reach across diverse terrains.

[54:47] Unnamed Inca Historian: "Lord Viracocha... who says let there be day, let there be night..."

Pachacuti's reign marked the pinnacle of Inca architectural achievement, exemplified by structures like Sacsayhuamán, with its precisely cut interlocking stones designed to withstand earthquakes.

Inca Administration and Infrastructure

The Inca developed an unparalleled network of roads stretching over 5,000 kilometers, facilitating rapid military mobilization and efficient administration. Centralized control was maintained through a system of storehouses (colcas) distributed throughout the empire, ensuring resource distribution and logistical support.

[37:35] Atahualpa: "They count by certain knots on cords and so record..."

Communication was managed via the quipu system—knotted cords used to record information, from administrative data to poetic epics, though modern decipherment remains incomplete.

Inca Society and Economy

Inca society was highly stratified yet inclusive, allowing conquered peoples to retain their local deities by integrating them into the Inca pantheon. The economy was state-controlled, with agriculture adapted to extreme conditions through terracing and advanced irrigation. The Inca cultivated thousands of crop varieties, ensuring resilience against environmental and agricultural challenges.

[34:07] Unnamed Inca Historian: "These fields... are still visible today on all the rocky heights."

Labor was organized through a reciprocal system where individuals contributed to state projects (mit'a) in exchange for sustenance and support, fostering a tightly-knit, cooperative society.

Decline: Civil War and Plague

By the early 16th century, the Inca Empire was embroiled in a brutal civil war between Emperor Huayna Capac and his half-brother Atahualpa. Concurrently, a devastating plague—likely smallpox introduced by earlier European contact—decimated the population, weakening the empire's structure and resilience.

[95:46] Atahualpa: "These people who have arrived... they will accomplish what our father, the son, predicted they would."

The internal strife and epidemic set the stage for external exploitation by European conquistadors.

Arrival of the Spanish Conquistadors: Francisco Pizarro

Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro, driven by tales of vast riches and inspired by his cousin Hernán Cortés' conquests, led an expedition to confront the weakened Inca Empire. Despite facing adversity during his initial voyages, Pizarro's determination culminated in the capture of Emperor Atahualpa in Cajamarca in 1532.

[125:43] Atahualpa: "Friends and comrades... here lies Peru with all its riches. Here, Panama and its poverty choose each man what best becomes a brave Spaniard."

Pizarro's tactical use of superior weaponry—cannons, arquebuses, and cavalry—coupled with deceitful diplomacy, enabled the Spaniards to overpower the Inca forces decisively.

Capture and Execution of Atahualpa

During a ceremonial meeting in Cajamarca, Pizarro orchestrated a surprise attack, decimating Atahualpa's army and capturing the emperor. Despite Atahualpa's offer of a massive ransom of gold and silver, Pizarro executed him, marking the symbolic end of Inca imperial leadership.

[163:11] Atahualpa: "I will give gold enough to fill a room... I will give silver to fill the whole chamber."

This act not only eradicated the central figure of Inca power but also emboldened further Spanish aggression and colonization efforts.

Aftermath: Collapse and Colonization

Following Atahualpa's death, the Inca Empire fragmented into warring factions, with puppet rulers installed by the Spanish. Resistance persisted, most notably through the last free Inca stronghold in Vilcabamba, which held out until 1572. The relentless pursuit and violence inflicted by the conquistadors, combined with systemic exploitation and disease, led to the complete collapse of Inca civilization.

[172:27] Paul Cooper: "The Spanish never made any attempt to fortify the city against the supposed attack or to prepare themselves for battle."

Legacy and Reflections

The fall of the Inca Empire underscores the devastating impact of European colonization, driven by greed and facilitated by internal divisions and biological warfare. The remnants of Inca ingenuity—Machu Picchu, intricate road systems, and agricultural terraces—stand as testament to a civilization's grandeur and the tragedy of its downfall.

[197:01] Atahualpa: "In shining clothes... Preserve what you have infused with life for ages without end."

Paul Cooper reflects on the emotional and cultural loss suffered by the Inca, inviting listeners to empathize with a society witnessing its end.

[196:57] Paul Cooper: "Imagine watching the great society of the Inca deteriorate around you beneath the twin forces of plague and civil war."

Notable Quotes:

• Hiram Bingham ([01:09]): "The view was magnificent... the rushing waters of the noisy river."

• Unnamed Inca Historian ([24:26]): "He set aside... forming them of stones."

• Atahualpa ([37:35]): "They count by certain knots on cords and so record..."

• Unnamed Inca Noble ([34:07]): "These fields... still visible today on all the rocky heights."

• Atahualpa ([95:46]): "These people who have arrived... they will accomplish what our father... predicted."

Conclusion:

Episode 12 of the Fall of Civilizations podcast provides a comprehensive exploration of the Inca Empire's rise and fall, intricately weaving historical narratives with firsthand accounts and scholarly interpretations. Through the lens of Machu Picchu's discovery and the tragic demise of the Inca leadership, Paul Cooper illuminates the common threads of resilience, innovation, and vulnerability that underpin the collapse of great civilizations.