**Fall of Civilizations Podcast: Episode 19 – The Mongols - Terror of the Steppe (Part 2)
Host: Paul Cooper
Release Date: November 30, 2024
Introduction
In the second part of Episode 19, The Mongols - Terror of the Steppe (Part 2), host Paul Cooper continues his exploration of the Mongol Empire's rise, governance, expansion, and eventual fragmentation. This episode delves into the reign of Ogedei Khan, the administrative transformations within the empire, its aggressive westward expansion into Europe, and the internal struggles that ultimately led to the empire's decline.
Succession and Ogedei Khan's Ascension
[00:19] Historian:
Following the death of Chinggis Khan, the Mongol Empire faced a critical juncture. Ogedei Khan, Chinggis's youngest son, was appointed as his successor after a two-year regency led by Tolui.
Notable Quote:
Chronicler [01:11]:
"In accordance with the decree of Chinggis Khan, they installed Ogedei as Khan. All personal slaves and 10,000 guards were handed over."
Ogedei's Celebrations and Generosity:
One of Ogedei's first acts was to celebrate his ascension with grand festivities, showcasing his generosity by distributing wealth to influential families. While this act earned him many allies, Persian scholar Ata Malik Juwvaini criticized his excessive spending.
Juwvaini [02:55]:
"He was ever spreading the carpet of merrymaking and treading the path of excess..."
Administrative Shifts:
Contrary to his father's preference for a nomadic lifestyle, Ogedei admired the settled societies of China and Persia. Influenced by Khitan advisor Yalu Chukai, Ogedei proclaimed:
[04:33] Scholar:
"An empire won on horseback cannot be ruled on horseback."
This marked a significant shift as Ogedei sought to establish a permanent capital and adopt administrative practices from the regions he admired.
Founding of Karakorum
[05:46] Narrator:
Ogedei initiated the construction of Karakorum, a city symbolizing the empire's grandeur. Built rapidly with Chinese and Persian craftsmen, the city featured earthwork walls, wooden pillars with pagoda roofs, and stone tortoises at each corner symbolizing eternity.
Notable Quote:
Narrator [07:20]:
"Above the town, a garden was built for the Khan... a throne having three flights of steps for the Khan alone."
Economic Challenges:
Despite its magnificence, Karakorum was economically unsustainable, relying heavily on imports from fertile regions. Ogedei attempted to make it a trading hub by enhancing the postal system (yam), praised by Marco Polo for its efficiency.
Marco Polo [12:01]:
"The messengers of the emperor find... furnished with fine beds and all necessary articles in rich silk."
However, by 1235, Ogedei's lavish expenditures led to financial strain, forcing the empire to resume military campaigns to secure new sources of wealth.
Mongol Expansion into Europe
[15:43] Scholar:
"The whole world had been destined to live under Mongol rule..."
The Battle of the Kalka River (1223):
Mongol generals Subodai and Jebe launched invasions into Russian territories, leading to the decimation of the Russian forces at the Battle of the Kalka River. Despite initial Russian confidence, the Mongols' superior tactics and endurance resulted in a catastrophic defeat.
Notable Quote:
Novgorod Chronicle [24:43]:
"There was a terrible and savage slaughter... only every tenth returned to his home."
Subsequent Invasions:
In 1237, the Mongols returned with advanced weaponry, utilizing siege engines and incendiary devices to conquer key cities like Kiev in 1240. The destruction was brutal, with massive loss of life and widespread devastation.
Matthew of Paris [27:42]:
"An immense horde of that detestable Race of Satan, the Tartars rushed forth like demons loosed from hell..."
Internal Struggles and the Death of Ogedei Khan
Power Struggles Post-Ogedei:
Ogedei's death in December 1241 plunged the empire into a decade-long succession crisis. His lack of an immediate successor led to a power vacuum, with various factions vying for control.
Monka Khan's Ascension [45:21]:
Monka, Ogedei's grandson, secured the throne in 1251 by eliminating rivals, including his own cousins, demonstrating his ruthless approach to consolidating power.
Notable Quote:
Monka [45:45]:
"I follow the laws of my ancestors. I do not imitate other countries' ways."
The Assassins and the Fall of Baghdad
Conflict with the Hashashin:
Monka faced threats from the Hashashin, an Islamic sect known for political assassinations. In response, he ordered his brother Hulagu to eliminate them by capturing and destroying their stronghold at Alamut in 1256.
Siege of Baghdad (1258):
Hulagu led the siege against Baghdad, culminating in its fall on February 10, 1258. This event marked the end of the Abbasid Caliphate and was a significant blow to the Islamic world.
Notable Quote:
Witness [71:54] Poet:
"The inhabitants of Baghdad were put under the sword... the dead lay as mounds in the streets and the markets."
Fragmentation of the Mongol Empire
Division into Khanates:
After Monka's death in 1259, the empire fragmented into four distinct khanates:
- Ilkhanate: Persia and the Middle East under Hulagu.
- Golden Horde: Northwest, including Russia, under Jochi's descendants.
- Chagatai Khanate: Central Asia under Chagatai's lineage.
- Yuan Dynasty: East Asia under Kublai Khan.
Civil Wars and Decline:
Internal conflicts weakened the unity, leading to the eventual disintegration of the unified empire. Kublai Khan's focus on China marked a significant shift from the traditional nomadic governance, leading to separate trajectories for each khanate.
Kublai Khan and the Yuan Dynasty
Adoption of Chinese Culture:
Kublai Khan embraced Chinese administrative practices, establishing the Yuan Dynasty and founding Dadu (modern Beijing) as the capital. His court became a melting pot of Eurasian cultures, fostering advancements and maintaining a vast network across the empire.
Notable Quote:
Traveler [48:13]:
"The Khan was sitting on a couch, dressed in a fur which was spotted and very glossy like a seal skin."
Marco Polo's Visit:
Marco Polo's accounts provide vivid descriptions of the Yuan court's opulence and technological advancements, including paper money and grand architectural projects.
Great Wall Construction:
In response to repeated invasions, the Ming Dynasty (successors to the Yuan) reinforced the Great Wall, symbolizing a shift towards isolationism and defensive strategies.
The End of the Mongol Empire
Nearing Collapse:
By the late 13th century, the Yuan Dynasty faced internal strife, rebellions, and the devastating impact of the Black Death. Kublai Khan's successors struggled to maintain control, leading to widespread famine and political instability.
Final Conquests and Legacy:
As Ming forces rose, they systematically dismantled the remaining Mongol territories. The last Khan of China, Toghan Temur, surrendered in 1368, marking the end of Mongol rule in China. The Ilkhanate and other khanates similarly succumbed to internal decay and external pressures.
Notable Quote:
Traveler [147:44]:
"He is the most powerful man... from the time of our first fight, Adam, until this day."
The Lasting Impact of the Mongol Empire
Cultural and Technological Exchange:
The Mongol Empire facilitated unprecedented cultural and technological exchanges across Eurasia. Innovations like gunpowder, the compass, and papermaking technology spread westward, significantly impacting European development and the Age of Discovery.
Marco Polo's Travels:
Marco Polo's Travels inspired European explorers, including Christopher Columbus, whose voyages were instrumental in the Age of Discovery.
Legacy in Modern Times:
The Mongol legacy persists in various forms, from surnames like "Khan" to the concept of the Pax Mongolica, which fostered an era of relative peace and connectivity across the vast empire.
Final Reflection:
Paul Cooper closes the episode by reflecting on the paradoxical nature of the Mongol Empire—a force of both destruction and unification, whose rise and fall reshaped the world in profound ways.
Notable Closing Quote:
Rebel Leader [159:40]:
"Imagine the hollowed halls and shattered walls... windswept grasses growing through the stones of Karakorum."
Conclusion
Episode 19, Part 2 of the Fall of Civilizations Podcast offers a comprehensive exploration of the Mongol Empire's zenith and decline. Through detailed historical accounts and vivid narrations, Paul Cooper illuminates how the Mongols transformed the geopolitical landscape, leaving an indelible mark on world history.
Notable Final Quote:
General [131:42]:
"They besieged and took precious Dadu... We have lost the whole of it to China."
Thank You for Listening
Paul Cooper extends his gratitude to voice actors, historical advisors, and listeners. He encourages engagement through social media and Patreon support, ensuring the continuation of in-depth historical explorations.
Notable Acknowledgments:
- Voice Actors: Michael Hajiantonis, Lachlan Lucas, Alexandra Bolton, and others.
- Historical Advisors: Toby Jones (Oriental Institute, Czech Academy of Sciences) and Jack Wilson (Central European University, Vienna).
- Featured Readings: Osama Taher (Arabic), Richard Tang (Chinese), Wiles Efin Haller (Mongolian).
Call to Action: Paul invites listeners to support the podcast via Patreon and engage with his book Fall of Civilizations: Stories of Greatness and Decline.
Final Thought: The episode encapsulates the rise and fall of one of history's most formidable empires, highlighting the complex interplay of leadership, culture, warfare, and economics that dictate the fate of civilizations.
For more detailed maps, images, and reading suggestions, listeners are encouraged to follow the podcast on their preferred platforms and join the conversation on social media.
End of Summary