Gone Medieval – Early Medieval Croatia
Podcast: Gone Medieval (History Hit)
Host: Dr. Eleanor (Eleanor) Janega
Guest: Professor Florin Curta (University of Florida)
Date: March 16, 2026
Episode Theme:
A deep exploration of the formation and evolution of medieval Croatia, the uniqueness of Dalmatia and its urban centers, and how identities and powers intersected along the Adriatic coast. The conversation, with leading historian Florin Curta, questions established narratives about migrations, state formation, and the cultural and political complexities at the crossroads of East and West.
Main Theme:
The episode investigates how the early medieval Croatian realm emerged—not from simple ethnic replacement or violent invasions, but through a patchwork of continuity, acculturation, and formidable local agency set against major political powers (the Franks, Byzantines, Venetians, and Hungarians).
1. Setting the Scene and Introducing the Guest
[02:46–05:13]
- Dr. Janega paints a vivid picture of Dalmatia’s landscape and its pivotal location between east and west, Latin and Greek, Slavic and Roman.
- She frames the challenge: “Who were the people who built the first Croatian kingdom along this contested coastline? ... Their very identity was far more complex, more contested, more fascinating than the simple narratives we've inherited.”
- Professor Curta is introduced for his transformative scholarship challenging ethnic-based understandings of the Slavs, suggesting Slavic identity is as much a political construction as an ethnic one.
2. Roman Foundations and Post-Roman Continuity
[05:52–12:01]
Geography and Distinctions
- Dalmatia: a Roman province with numerous coastal cities (Zadar, Trogir, Split), protected by islands and mountains.
- Interior regions (Pannonia, Illyricum, Slavonia) contrasted in culture, geography, and historical development.
Continuity Over Catastrophe
- Curta: “There is no gap. There is no such thing as a demise of the cities, maybe revived in the Middle Ages and so on... transformations... could by no means be described in terms of destruction, catastrophe, et cetera.” (09:59)
- The so-called ‘fall’ of the Roman Empire in 476 and the ‘barbarian invasions’ (Ostrogoths, Lombards, Huns) had surprisingly little destructive impact on Dalmatian cities.
Cities as Political Centers
- Even after Rome, cities like Split (Spalato) remained populous and politically significant. “Where did Diocletian retire? Spalat.” (10:52)
- The region’s Roman character persisted; cities were never fully abandoned.
3. The Question of ‘Slavic’ Migration and Identity
[14:46–20:11]
Challenging Migration Narratives
- Dr. Janega introduces the traditional view: Slavs arriving, urban elites remaining Roman; the countryside becomes 'Slavic.'
- Curta responds: “It’s problematic... there’s no evidence in the written sources of Slavs settling in the area.”
Archaeological Evidence
- Hallmarks of Slavic settlements elsewhere: sunken-floored buildings, ‘Prague type’ pottery, cremation cemeteries—are missing from Croatia for the relevant period.
- “No such thing in Croatia. None so far.” (16:48)
Identity as Process, Not Invasion
- “Probably no invasions actually took place in Dalmatia. The presence of the Slavs... is actually an acculturation process in which language must have been involved... That must have affected the rural areas, not the urban ones.” (18:10)
- While some small-scale migration is possible, it’s “nothing like a huge mass of people coming into the air and replacing the local population.”
Social and Economic Change
- The main transformation is in rural economy and language—not mass ethnic displacement.
4. Frankish and Byzantine Competition
[21:40–27:07]
Frankish Expansion
- Frankish encroachment follows the defeat of the Avars and the influence of Bavaria and Lombard Italy.
- Key sources: Frankish chronicles (such as Fredegar) mention early Slavic polities nearby, but not in Dalmatia itself.
Venetian and Byzantine Interests
- Venice rises as a medieval maritime power, crucial for Adriatic control.
- Istria emerges as a granary and strategic region.
- “Venice... was at that time part of the Byzantine Empire. And Venetians are by now rising to actually control the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea.” (22:53)
Treaty of Aachen
- Franks and Byzantines formally divide the region: Byzantines hold the coast and towns, Franks retain Istria and the interior.
- “These are the circumstances in which there is an explosion of Frankish influence... all of which are connected to the rise of Croatia as a medieval state.” (24:59)
5. Formation of the Croatian Kingdom
[25:26–31:05]
Dukes to Kings
- Early leaders listed in papal correspondence and inscriptions: Branimir, Trpimir; by early 10th century, Tomislav is recognized as ‘king.’
- “If you want to really put your finger on the chronology of the area, I'd say around 900... at least in the eyes of the Pope, this individual... is a king.” (26:18)
Ecclesiastical Politics (Synod of Split 925/928)
- Disputes between bishops (Split vs. Nin); outcome: bishopric of Nin abolished, Split elevated to archbishopric.
- Introduction of Slavonic liturgy and Glagolitic script as distinctive Croatian features.
- “From this moment onwards, the use of Slavonic for the liturgy and the use of Glagolitic... becomes a matter of identity in Croatia...” (29:40)
- Formal channels established between Rome and the Croatian church.
6. Byzantium vs Rome and Croatian Autonomy
[31:05–37:40]
Competing Spheres of Influence
- Byzantine Dalmatia is reorganized as a ‘theme’ (military province); Zadar as administrative seat.
- The region endures back-and-forth between Byzantine and papal/Roman alignment, but doesn’t fit neatly in either Catholic or Orthodox categories until much later.
- “In the 12th century... Archbishop... Rainier, traveling all the way to Constantinople, you know, shower with gifts...” (33:23)
- Local elites adeptly leverage these rivalries to maintain autonomy and identity.
Importance of Location
- “This is a group of people that you just sort of want to keep happy. You know, you really want the Dalmatians to be on your side.” (37:28 – Dr. Jaunega)
7. Reform, Rebellion, and Crusader Intrusion
[37:40–43:17]
Gregorian Reform and Local Resistance
- Local elites held ‘proprietary churches’; popes press for reform (celibacy, end of simony).
- “We have a rebellion, quote unquote, of two bishops... We're going to have specifically Slavonic as liturgy in the church. And the Pope is really upset about this.” (40:54)
- Notable moment: Pope’s letter to the King of Denmark seeking support against ‘heretical’ Croatian bishops.
Crusader and Venetian Intrusions
- Crusaders pass through Croatia, sometimes perceiving it as pagan.
- The sacking of Zadar (Zara) by Crusaders (with Venetian encouragement) highlights the political complexities.
- “Could you please take Zara, which is a Christian crusading city, you Crusaders, could you conquer a crusading city?” (45:43)
8. Domination by Venice, Hungary, and Rise of Local Nobility
[43:17–51:52]
Changing Hands
- 13th century: Hungarian control solidifies over interior; Venice dominates the coast.
- Local noble families (Frankopan, Babonic, Kačić, etc.) assert semi-independent power as central authority wanes.
- “There resulted in the number of noble families exercising control almost autonomously... for all practical purposes the rulers.” (49:45)
- Mythologized privileges and traditions of Croatian autonomy date from later medieval projections.
9. Late Medieval Power Struggles and Emerging Croatian Identity
[53:26–57:49]
Angevin-Hungarian-Holy Roman Competition
- Repeated struggles for allegiance and occasional switching of sides among Croatian nobles.
- Strong sense of Croatian identity emerges, especially compared to other Hungarian regions—“very strong sense of local identity and very powerful clans that we have in Croatia.” (56:22)
10. Ottoman Threat and Habsburg Intervention
[57:49–61:00]
Why Didn’t the Ottomans Fully Conquer Croatia?
- The cost and difficulty of controlling such a mountainous, fiercely independent region at the intersection of competing great powers made it unattractive to the Ottomans.
- “The cost of keeping Croatia under control... would have been enormous... better to actually keep it like a gray zone...” (59:13)
- Venice and the Habsburgs offered additional resistance; Croatia as buffer state.
11. Croatian Culture and Architecture
[61:22–62:39]
Manuscripts and Romanesque Churches
- Croatia as a cultural powerhouse; important for Beneventan script manuscripts and Romanesque architecture—e.g., the church of Saint Chrysogonos in Zadar.
- “Some of the most wonderful manuscripts, scripts ever written in the Latin in the western part of the church in the high Middle Ages... phenomenal churches as the one of Saint Chrysogonos.” (61:56)
Memorable Plug
- Dr. Janega: “If you're interested in medieval history, Zadar is really one to go check out...” (62:19)
Notable Quotes
- Prof. Curta: “Probably no invasions actually took place in Dalmatia. The presence of the Slavs... is actually an acculturation process in which language must have been involved.” (18:10)
- Dr. Janega: “You really want the Dalmatians to be on your side.” (37:28)
- Prof. Curta: “There is no such thing as a demise of the cities, maybe revived in the Middle Ages... transformations... could by no means be described in terms of destruction, catastrophe, et cetera.” (09:59)
- Prof. Curta: “The cost of keeping Croatia under control... would have been enormous.” (59:13)
Timestamps of Key Segments
- 02:46 — Introduction and context setting
- 05:52 — Roman Dalmatia and its endurance
- 14:46 — Questioning 'Slavic migration'
- 21:40 — Franks, Venetians, and Byzantine rivalry
- 25:26 — Emergence of Croatia as a kingdom
- 27:27 — Synods, church politics, and the Slavonic liturgy
- 31:05 — Byzantine organization and cultural intersection
- 37:40 — Local resistance to Gregorian reform
- 43:17 — Crusade-era upheavals, Zadar sacked
- 48:57 — Nobles, fragmentation, and evolving Croatian identity
- 53:26 — Angevin–Sigismund conflicts and noble agency
- 57:49 — Role of Croatia in resisting the Ottomans
- 61:22 — Cultural achievements—manuscripts, churches
Overall Tone & Takeaways
- Both speakers are lively, scholarly, and willing to challenge conventional wisdom.
- Emphasis on complexity, local agency, and the absurdities of medieval politics in a contested region.
- Croatia’s story is not one of simple narratives: it’s a dynamic crossroads, continually forging (and re-forging) its identity in the play of east, west, and local ambitions.
A must-listen for anyone interested in how medieval identities, frontiers, and states form not by accident or invasion, but at the intersection of culture, commerce, and competing empires.