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Lindsey Graham (7:08)

From noiser and airship I'm lindsey graham, and this is history. Daily. History is made every day on this podcast. Every day, we tell the true stories of the people and events that shaped our world. Today is January 16, 27 BCE the end of the Roman Republic. It's March 44 BCE at the school of Philosophy in Apollonia on the coast of modern Albania, 18 months after Julius Caesar's triumphal procession through Rome. Now 18 years old, the Roman nobleman Octavian stares out of the window as a lecturer drones on about the legend of Rome's founding. It's a story that Octavian and his fellow students have heard many times before. But that doesn't stop the old professor launching into a lengthy explanation of the tale's meaning. Octavian and the other students droop in their seats with boredom. But Octavian jumps to attention when the head of the school snaps open the door, interrupting the lecturer. He catches Octavian's eye and asks him to step outside. Octavian's classmates whisper as he leaves, but Octavian ignores them. He's used to being paid special attention, thanks to his famous relative. Fourteen years ago, Octavian's father died. This loss had a big impact on Octavian's upbringing. After his mother remarried a few months later, Octavian was sent to live with his grandmother. But Octavian's grandmother was no ordinary woman. She was the sister of Julius Caesar, one of the most powerful politicians in Rome. Caesar took a remarkable interest in his great nephew, and over the years that followed, the two became close. Since Caesar had no children of his own, he eventually decided to adopt Octavian and make him his heir. And now that Caesar has been declared dictator of Rome, Octavian is being groomed for the high command himself. He's expected to take control of a legion in the Roman army as soon as his schooling is over. But all of those plans are about to change. As Octavian steps outside the lecture hall, the head of the school turns to him with a sympathetic look. Octavian's adopted father, Julius Caesar, is dead, and his death was not a natural one. Caesar was murdered on the floor of the Senate by a group of powerful noblemen. Some of the assassins were men Caesar had thought were his allies and friends. But they had turned against him because they believed Caesar intended to dissolve the Republic and declare himself king of Rome. Octavian's stomach lurches. Before today, his close relationship with Caesar promised him a lifetime of power, wealth and privilege. Now it leaves him in peril. Octavian faces a difficult and potentially dangerous decision. He can return to Rome to claim his inheritance as Caesar's heir, but that may put him in danger of violence at the hands of the conspirators who murdered his adopted father. On the other hand, he could lie low in Apollonia and forsake the legacy Caesar left for him. Octavian's lecturers all advise him to stay away from Rome. The capital city has been wracked with mob violence since the assassination, and the unstable political situation seems to shift by the hour. His lecturers in Apollonia all seem to believe that the young, inexperienced Octavian won't survive more than a few weeks if he goes to Rome. But despite their pleas Octavian decides to return home. He's determined to live up to his great uncle's name. When he arrives in Italy, Octavian discovers that Rome is on the cusp of another civil war. At the center of the turmoil is Mark Antony, Caesar's chief lieutenant. Mark Antony is serving as consul, one of the most powerful offices in the republic. And he believes that makes him the man who's best positioned to take charge and prevent Rome from falling into further anarchy. But Mark Antony is a divisive figure, and not everyone wants to see him take charge. Octavian's arrival in Italy gives those who supported Caesar a new figurehead to rally around. Before he died, Julius Caesar had been preparing for another military campaign overseas, and he'd gathered many of his best troops in Italy to join him him. So now Octavian sets to work persuading these men to pledge their loyalty to him. Caesar was a brilliant general and a popular commander, so his soldiers are happy to serve under his chosen heir, especially when Octavian promises to pay them handsomely. So by the time Octavian reaches Rome, he has more than 3,000 experienced soldiers already at his back. That makes him a new power in the capital city and immediately brings him into conflict with Mark Antony. But at first, Mark Antony is dismissive of the newcomer. He considers himself the true heir to Julius Caesar. Mark Antony is also 20 years older than Octavian and sees him as little more than a boy. But Octavian quickly proves that his youth is no obstacle. Over the next 18 months, he repeatedly out thinks and outmaneuvers Mark Antony. By now, Caesar's assassins have all fled Rome to raise armies for the civil war everyone believes is coming. Eventually, the former allies of Julius Caesar realize that they must band together to survive. So after talks in northern Italy, Mark Antony, Octavian, and a third nobleman named Lepidus form a power sharing agreement. This Triumvirate, as it's known, will rule Rome together while taking the fight to the traitors who murdered Julius Caesar. But the uneasy truce between them won't last long. All three men are ambitious, and after dealing with their common enemies, they'll turn on each other. Rome won't be at peace until there's only one left standing.

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Lindsey Graham (14:01)

It's September 22, 36 BCE In Sicily, eight years after the murder of Julius Caesar, 25 year old Octavian holds his head high as he walks past thousands of Roman soldiers. The massed ranks stand rigidly to attention. They've been assembled here to watch Octavian decide the fate of the prisoner, who's now being held firmly by each arm by two legionnaires, one of the Triumvirate. Lepidus. For the past seven years, Octavian, Lepidus and Mark Antony have each commanded armies in the field and fought against their common enemies. The men who murdered Julius Caesar have been hunted down and their armies defeated one by one. But now that the three men are victorious, there's nothing to stop the Triumvirate from quarreling with each other. Officially, they split the Roman world between them. Octavian has the west, Mark Antony the east, and Lepidus the south. But each man dreams of usurping the others and ruling alone. But still, there is power in numbers. Only a few days ago, Octavian and Lepidus put aside their differences to fight side by side again. A Roman general had risen up against the Triumvirate, and Octavian and Lepidus joined forces to crush the rebellion. The battle on the island of Sicily was a long and bloody one, but Octavian and Lepidus emerged victorious. The rebels surrender, though, didn't end the fighting. When the dust settled, Octavian and Lepidus argued over who should take control of Sicily. Lepidus threatened to have his troops seize the island by force, but Octavian recognized that this dispute would also gave him the opportunity to remove the weakest member of the Triumvirate. Octavian accused Lepidus of attempting to break the Triumvirate, and he ordered his soldiers to apprehend his Fellow ruler. Now Octavian must decide what to do with his former compatriot. The soldiers holding Lepidus force him to his knees, expecting Octavian to order his execution. Octavian glances at the thousands of soldiers watching on. Many of them fought under Lepidus command. And Octavian isn't sure how they'll react to seeing their general being killed in front of them. So as Octavian ponders Lepidus fate, Lepidus trembles, begs for mercy. And with that moment of weakness, Octavian realizes that Lepidus is no longer a threat to him. He pulls Lepidus to his feet and embraces him. And the soldiers cheer Octavian's show of mercy. Octavian isn't going to let Lepidus get away entirely. However, he whispers into Lepidus ear that he must go into exile, far from Rome and never threaten Octavian's power again. Lepidus nods eagerly, thankful he's escaping with his life and with their general. Humiliated and exiled, Lepidus legionnaires soon pledge their allegiance to Octavian, giving him the largest army in Roman history. The only thing now standing between him and total dominion of Rome is the other man left in the triumvirate. Mark Antony. Octavian knows that Mark Antony will be a more difficult opponent. He has a far larger army and far more support among the people and Senate of Rome than Lepidus did. But Octavian soon finds a way of undermining his rival in the East. Mark Antony has taken the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra as his lover and he's spending more and more time away from Rome. Octavian takes advantage of Mark Antony's absence to spread rumors of his disloyalty and turn the people and the Senate against him. His propaganda campaign works. And with the Senate's blessing, Octavian declares war on Mark Antony and Cleopatra. In September, 31 BCE, the two sides engage in a naval battle off the coast of Greece. Several of Mark Antony's ships are sunk and Mark Antony himself flees to the Egyptian capital, Alexandria. But Octavian isn't willing to let Mark Antony get away. Octavian sails across the Mediterranean Sea himself with more than 40,000 legionnaires and and lay siege to Alexandria. But although Octavian has more men under his command, Mark Antony has strong city walls to hide behind. So the battle of Alexandria is a close fought affair. Octavian's army suffers many casualties as his legionnaires launch attack after attack until finally they make a breakthrough. And after fierce hand to hand fighting in Alexandria's streets, they close in on Mark Antony. But he chooses suicide rather than surrender. Fourteen years after the assassination of Julius Caesar, Octavian has replicated his great uncle's achievements and made himself the most powerful man in Rome. But at this moment of triumph, when absolute power was within his grasp, this is where Caesar fell. If Octavian is to have a different fate, then he will have to do it a different way.

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Lindsey Graham (19:46)

It's January 16, 27 BCE in the Senate House in Rome, three years after the death of Mark Antony. Octavian is now 35 years old and stands in the opulent chamber where Roman senators meet to discuss the business of government. He's been here many times to coax or threaten the senators to agree with his point of view. But today, after 17 years of power struggles, he's finally emerged as Rome's undisputed leader. After defeating Mark Antony at the Battle of Alexandria, Octavian had no rivals to stop him from taking total control in Rome. But Octavian remembered that his great uncle Julius Caesar had been in the same position when he was assassinated by a group of senators. So Octavian decides to hide his ambitions. He agreed to another power sharing agreement, this time with a more cooperative ally than Lepidus or Mark Antony. Then, three days ago, Octavian officially gave up his military commands and resigned his various offices, claiming that he had succeeded in his aim of protecting the Roman Republic. But this was all an act. He had no intention of giving up power. And today, Octavian has been recalled by the Senate to accept a new title, the most prestigious that has ever been Bestowed. After the proceedings begin, one of the senators rises from his seat and reads a proclamation. From today, Octavian will be known as Augustus. This title means illustrious One and signals that the Senate considers Octavian to be favored by the gods. He's also named the Princeps Senatus, or chief among Senators. So there's no longer any doubt Octavian or Augustus is now the most powerful figure in Rome. But even now, Augustus keeps up the pretense of working for the Roman Republic and not himself. One by one, the senators offer him a series of gifts. Purple robes, a golden crown, a scepter. They are all old symbols of monarchy. But in this carefully choreographed ceremony, Augustus raises his hand to decline them all. Instead, he claims that the Roman government will function just as it has before. But behind the scenes, every major decision in Rome will go through him. Despite his claims, Augustus rules Rome alone. Over the next 41 years, Augustus will dramatically expand Roman territory. He'll annex Egypt, conquer Spain and expand into the Balkans. And when he dies in 14 CE, he'll be succeeded by his adopted son, Tiberius. The handover of power to Augustus chosen heir will confirm that Rome is now effectively a monarchy. The Roman Republic is dead, having given way to the Roman Empire when Octavian was granted the title of Augustus on January 16, 27 BCE. Next On History Daily, January 19, 1915 in Norfolk, England, four people are killed by German bombs during the first ever Zeppelin raid of World War I. From Noiser and Airship, this is History Daily hosted, edited and executive produced by me, Lindsey Graham Audio editing by Mohammad Shahr Sound design by Gabriel Gould Music by Thrum this episode is written and researched by Owen Paul Nichols, edited by Scott Reeves Managing producer Emily Burke Executive producers are William Simpson for Airship and Pascal Hughes for Noiser.