History Extra Podcast: "Ancient Egyptian Warfare: Everything You Wanted to Know"

Release Date: November 24, 2024
Host: John Baulkham
Guest: Dr. Nikki Nielsen, Senior Lecturer in Egyptology at the University of Manchester

Introduction

In this episode of the History Extra Podcast, host John Baulkham engages in an in-depth conversation with Dr. Nikki Nielsen, a renowned Egyptologist, about the intricacies of ancient Egyptian warfare. The discussion spans over three millennia, exploring the evolution of military tactics, technology, and societal impacts from the Early Dynastic Period to the Ptolemaic era and beyond.

Early Dynastic Period and Formation of the First Armies

[02:27] John Baulkham:
Introduces the topic by inquiring about the formation of the earliest Egyptian armies around the end of the fourth millennium BCE.

[02:41] Nikki Nielsen:
Explores the foundational aspects of ancient Egyptian warfare, emphasizing the challenges in defining "army" and "warfare" across different historical periods. She references the Narmer Palette as an early iconographic representation of battle aftermath, highlighting the focus on the king rather than strategic warfare. Nielsen underscores the limited archaeological evidence from this era, mentioning Jebel Sahaba (circa 12,000 BCE) as a significant massacre site showing early warfare tactics involving projectile weapons like arrows and blunt force trauma from maces and clubs.

Notable Quote:
"What we consider to be warfare today versus what we consider to be warfare in the medieval Period, the Roman period and pre-dynastic Egypt... it's not necessarily the same thing."
— Dr. Nikki Nielsen [02:41]

Old Kingdom: Evolution of Military Technology

[05:33] John Baulkham:
Shifts focus to the Old Kingdom (mid to late third millennium BCE), questioning the evolution of military technology during this period.

[05:44] Nikki Nielsen:
Discusses the transition from stone to bronze weaponry, noting the continued use of flint and chert for arrows due to their availability and sharpness. Nielsen observes the introduction of bronze axes, replacing stone maces, while spears and bows saw minimal technological advancements. She highlights the centralized state of the Old Kingdom, referencing Weni's accounts that describe a composite army of conscripted Egyptians and mercenaries from regions like modern-day Sudan. Nielsen emphasizes that the Old Kingdom army was not professional but rather a force raised through conscription and augmented by mercenaries.

Notable Quote:
"It's probably not a professional army in the sense, again, that we understand it. It's an army that's raised via forced conscription and then augmented by probably somewhat more hardy and somewhat tougher mercenary troops."
— Dr. Nikki Nielsen [05:44]

Middle Kingdom: Fortress Building and Expansion

[10:27] John Baulkham:
Asks about prominent warrior kings of the Middle Kingdom (late third to mid-second millennium BCE) and their military strategies.

[10:40] Nikki Nielsen:
Identifies Senusret I and III as key figures who heavily invested in constructing fortresses in Nubia along the Nile, aiming for formal territorial control. These fortifications, such as Buenos Megiza and Semna, enabled Egypt to protect trade routes and resource extraction operations. The Middle Kingdom saw a shift from mere raids to establishing permanent military presences in conquered territories. Nielsen also mentions the Stele of Ku Sobek, which records military campaigns into the Levant, showcasing Egypt's expansionist policies.

Notable Quote:
"They create a situation where history spins on its axis a little bit, because if Ramesses had been killed, then Egyptian history goes in a very different direction than it actually did."
— Dr. Nikki Nielsen [34:06]

Hyksos Invasion: Catalyst for Military Innovation

[12:46] John Baulkham:
Introduces listener questions regarding the Hyksos, prompting Nielsen to explain their significance.

[13:06] Nikki Nielsen:
Clarifies that the Hyksos were a non-Egyptian group that settled in northern Egypt towards the end of the Middle Kingdom. Contrary to later historical portrayals of them as catastrophic invaders, archaeological evidence from Tel El Daba (Avaris) suggests they began as mercenaries and settlers. As Egypt's political stability waned, the Hyksos capitalized on the power vacuum, ultimately taking control of the Nile Delta. Their rule introduced significant military innovations, including chariot warfare and composite bows, which revolutionized Egyptian military tactics.

Notable Quote:
"The Hyksos seem to be the catalysts for the emergence of chariot warfare in Egypt."
— Dr. Nikki Nielsen [15:22]

New Kingdom: The Golden Age and Military Prowess

[21:31] John Baulkham:
Queries whether the New Kingdom (mid to late second millennium BCE) represents a golden age of Egyptian warfare.

[21:31 - 27:58] Nikki Nielsen:
Explores the New Kingdom as a period marked by extensive military campaigns and empire-building. She describes the pharaohs of this era, particularly Thutmose III, as warrior kings who led numerous military expeditions to expand Egypt's borders and secure resources. Nielsen discusses the Battle of Megiddo, where Thutmose III employed strategic ingenuity to surprise his enemies, and the Siege of Joppa, which involved deceptive tactics reminiscent of stories like the Iliad. She emphasizes that while the New Kingdom saw significant military achievements, it also involved horrific violence against civilian populations, challenging the notion of a "golden age" by modern ethical standards.

Notable Quote:
"The figure of the king during the New Kingdom becomes more of a hero... It's easy to sometimes get almost a bit triumphalist with this stuff, but it is, in reality, quite horrific."
— Dr. Nikki Nielsen [21:31]

Amberna Letters and Diplomacy

[27:58] John Baulkham:
Presents a listener question about the extent of diplomacy in the reigns of pharaohs like Thutmose III.

[28:08] Nikki Nielsen:
Highlights the importance of diplomacy alongside warfare, referencing the Amarna Letters—a collection of diplomatic correspondences primarily from the reigns of Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun. These letters reveal a complex network of alliances among great powers like Babylon, Mitanni, and the Hittites, maintained through gift exchanges and intermarriages. Nielsen notes that while military campaigns were prominent, diplomatic relations played a critical role in sustaining Egypt's influence and preventing constant warfare.

Notable Quote:
"Amenhotep III marries an ungodly amount of foreign princesses in order to secure alliances."
— Dr. Nikki Nielsen [28:08]

Battle of Kadesh: Myth vs. Reality

[30:50] John Baulkham:
Addresses the prominence of the Battle of Kadesh in historical discussions and its significance.

[31:05] Nikki Nielsen:
Argues that the Battle of Kadesh (1274 BCE) may not have been as strategically significant as often portrayed. She explains that the battle is heavily documented because Ramesses II sought to immortalize it, portraying himself as the heroic victor despite it being more of a stalemate. Nielsen suggests that the battle's historical prominence is more due to Ramesses II's propaganda efforts than its actual impact on Egypt's territorial or military standing.

Notable Quote:
"It's important to bear in Mind... these are the records of very, very horrific things that occurred..."
— Dr. Nikki Nielsen [21:31]

Ramesses II and Military Infrastructure

[34:06] John Baulkham:
Inquires about Ramesses II's contributions to military architecture.

[34:20] Nikki Nielsen:
Details Ramesses II's extensive building projects, particularly the construction of fortifications along the Marmarican coast and the Sinai Peninsula's Ways of Horus. She explains that many of these structures served dual purposes as military installations and religious temples dedicated to Ramesses himself, reinforcing both his military and divine authority. Nielsen mentions ongoing archaeological discoveries, such as recently unearthed Ramesside forts near Alexandria, which continue to shed light on Egypt's military infrastructure.

Notable Quote:
"The fortifications also come complete with a temple that is partially dedicated to Ramesses himself."
— Dr. Nikki Nielsen [34:20]

Late Period and Foreign Invasions

[36:15] John Baulkham:
Explores Egypt's responses to invasions by the Assyrians, Nubians, and Persians during the Late Period (first millennium BCE).

[36:31] Nikki Nielsen:
Describes Egypt's primarily resistance-based approach to foreign invasions, characterized by numerous rebellions and the emergence of local leaders claiming royal status. She notes that during Persian occupation, Egyptians frequently sought alliances with Greek city-states like Athens to counter Persian power. These alliances often involved incorporating Greek mercenaries to support internal rebellions against occupying forces.

Notable Quote:
"There is a lot of military pushback, a lot of rebellions, and a lot... attempts to create alliances with Greece and especially with Athens."
— Dr. Nikki Nielsen [36:31]

Ptolemaic Period and Greek Influence on Warfare

[37:47] John Baulkham:
Asks about changes in Egyptian warfare following Alexander the Great's conquest.

[37:52] Nikki Nielsen:
Explains that the Ptolemies introduced hoplite warfare to Egypt, integrating Greek military techniques into the Egyptian army. She discusses the machimoi, native Egyptian soldiers who were organized into military families with land and tax privileges. To balance the power of the native troops and prevent rebellions, the Ptolemies employed Greek mercenaries under favorable terms, ensuring loyalty and maintaining a continuous military presence. Nielsen also touches on the strategic necessity of these measures given the constant state of warfare during the Ptolemaic reign.

Notable Quote:
"There's no better paymaster than Ptolemy. There is no better master of a soldier because the Ptolemies are paying premium basically for good Greek mercenaries."
— Dr. Nikki Nielsen [40:13]

Decline and Roman Annexation

[40:13] John Baulkham:
Inquires about the state of Egyptian warfare leading up to the Roman annexation in 30 BCE.

[40:13] Nikki Nielsen:
Discusses the decline of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, attributing it to financial mismanagement, including the debasement of currency to stretch limited resources. Nielsen laments the position of Cleopatra VII, a capable and educated ruler, who inherited a bankrupt state plagued by heavy indebtedness to Rome. The economic strain made it impossible to sustain mercenary armies, leading to reliance on devalued currency that further destabilized the kingdom. This precarious situation ultimately facilitated Rome's annexation of Egypt.

Notable Quote:
"He is saddled with this horrible inheritance where her father has basically bankrupted the country."
— Dr. Nikki Nielsen [40:13]

Role of Women in Ancient Egyptian Warfare

[41:50] John Baulkham:
Poses a question about the involvement of women in ancient Egyptian military affairs.

[41:50] Nikki Nielsen:
Highlights notable female figures who played active roles in warfare. She cites Ahotep, who led armies as a regent; Hatshepsut, depicted riding war chariots; and Cleopatra VII, who was involved in military leadership during battles like Raphia. Nielsen recounts the story of a Ptolemaic queen who inspired troops during a critical battle moment, showcasing that women, particularly of royal status, could occupy significant military leadership roles.

Notable Quote:
"There are quite a lot of evidence of women playing a very active part, certainly at that level, as commanders in military affairs."
— Dr. Nikki Nielsen [41:50]

Debunking Myths: The Chariot as a Tank

[43:37] John Baulkham:
Asks about prevalent myths surrounding ancient Egyptian warfare.

[43:47] Nikki Nielsen:
Addresses the misconception that New Kingdom chariots functioned similarly to tanks. She explains that archaeological findings reveal Egyptian chariots, like those from Tutankhamun's tomb, were lightweight and not suited for sustained combat engagements akin to modern tanks. Nielsen suggests that chariots were primarily status symbols or mobile platforms for archers, rather than heavily armored war machines.

Notable Quote:
"I don't think the idea that it is a tank is necessarily very useful."
— Dr. Nikki Nielsen [43:47]

Conclusion

Dr. Nikki Nielsen's comprehensive analysis provides listeners with a nuanced understanding of ancient Egyptian warfare, challenging commonly held beliefs and highlighting the complexity of military evolution over millennia. From the rudimentary raids of the Early Dynastic Period to the sophisticated military strategies of the New Kingdom and the transformative influences of foreign powers during the Late Period and Ptolemaic era, the episode underscores the integral role of warfare in shaping ancient Egyptian society and its enduring legacy.

Final Notable Quote:
"The chariots may have been used as mobile firing platforms, so a way to essentially harass enemy infantry while they're setting up before a battle."
— Dr. Nikki Nielsen [43:47]

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