History Extra Podcast Episode Summary: "Europe's Last Pagans"
Date: August 19, 2025
Guest: Dr. Francis Young (Folklorist, historian, author of Silence of the Gods)
Host: David Musgrove
Episode Overview
This episode explores the persistence and gradual extinction of pre-Christian (often called "pagan") religions on Europe's margins, long after the continent was considered "Christianized." Dr. Francis Young, author of Silence of the Gods: The Untold History of Europe’s Last Pagan Peoples, sheds light on why and how non-Christian traditions survived into the modern era (up to the early 20th century, and in some cases, even today) — focusing on the diverse peoples of the Baltics, Finnic world, and far northeastern Europe. The discussion dismantles myths about rapid Christianization while carefully considering the complexity and diversity of these "last pagans."
Key Discussion Points & Insights
Defining "Pagans" & the Book’s Scope
- [01:23] Francis Young introduces the "forgotten peoples" of Europe's religious history in the far north and east—those who retained pre-Christian religions well past the continent’s general Christianization.
- [01:54] The book starts in 1387 (Lithuania’s official conversion) and stretches to around 1900, highlighting the unexpectedly late survival of pre-Christian practices.
- [02:45] The terminology: Young expresses dislike for the term "pagan," noting its pejorative origins ("coined to mock and ridicule people who did not accept Christianity..."), but he uses 'pre-Christian' for specificity.
"It's a word that isn't all that helpful... it basically just means anybody who isn't a Christian."
— Francis Young [02:45]
Why Have Europe’s Internal “Pagans” Been Forgotten?
- [04:24] Although the clash of Christianity and indigenous religion is commonly discussed regarding the New World, European non-Christians have been overlooked due to their marginal location and the priorities of major Christian kingdoms.
- The late Reformation era heightened anxiety over non-Christian minorities living within Christian-polity borders.
Diversity & Commonalities Among Europe's Pre-Christian Peoples
- [06:23] Despite great diversity in language and culture (Baltic peoples with Indo-European languages; Finno-Ugric speakers like the Sami, Mari, and others), two main threads united these groups:
- All had to deal with the presence of Christianity in their worlds
- Their religious practices were fundamentally shaped by their natural environments
Rituals & Beliefs of Europe's Indigenous Religions
- [08:08] Practices covered a spectrum:
- Northern Shamanism: E.g., Sami and Nenets utilized trances, spirit contact, smoke, drums
- Baltic Practices: Sacred groves, fire, veneration of stones, trees as abodes of spirits, perpetual flames, hill altars
- Forest Animism: Eastern hunters regarded forests as living, sacred beings
- Polytheism & Sacrifice: Standard; sacrifices could be of animals or offerings of drink and food (libations), not always blood
"The landscape is always important."
— Francis Young [08:08]
Prehistoric Roots & Archaeological Evidence
- [10:19] Archaeology, especially in Karelia, demonstrates ongoing veneration at specific stones from the Bronze Age through the 20th century — though rituals’ meanings undoubtedly evolved.
- [11:57] However, Young cautions against assuming continuity in meaning or ritual detail.
Sources on These Religions: The Problem of Christian Viewpoints
- [12:37] There are no native written accounts; all written sources are by Christians (sometimes crude or demonizing, especially in the Middle Ages).
- By the Renaissance, more nuanced (though still Christian-biased) records appear.
- Most illuminating are records from ecclesiastical visitations, which sometimes preserve actual non-Christian voices under interrogation.
Why Did Some Peoples Resist Christianization?
- [16:11] While some places (Ireland, England, Poland, etc.) saw quick Christianization, others did not. Causes included:
- Language barriers: No missionaries with knowledge of Baltic or Finno-Ugric languages
- Lifestyle Differences: Nomadic or semi-settled economies (slash-and-burn agriculture, reindeer herding) made Christian structures irrelevant
- Geographical Remoteness: Sparsely populated, lacking roads/infrastructure
- Illustrative Story: During Lithuania's conversion, the Grand Duke himself had to translate for priests who didn’t speak Lithuanian.
"He had to preach Christianity to his own people because so few people knew the Lithuanian language."
— Francis Young [19:14]
Lithuania: The Last Official Pagan Kingdom
- [20:03] Medieval Lithuania was a massive, multi-ethnic state with pagan, Orthodox, Jewish, Muslim, and Catholic populations—a strategic "neutral" stance kept it pagan.
- Marrying Poland’s queen-to-be (Jadviga) required the Grand Duke to convert in 1387, thus aligning Lithuania with Catholicism but ending its official paganism.
The Teutonic Knights & “Northern Crusades”
- [22:42] Teutonic Knights were crusading military orders that waged war on Baltic "pagans," occupying land and enforcing Christianity, making themselves de facto rulers over non-Christian populations.
Conversion Realities: Propaganda & Continuity
- [28:10] Conversion events (such as mass baptisms in Vilnius, where people were incentivized with woolen clothes and Christian names assigned en masse) were largely staged for show.
- True conversion was patchy and slow; reports of pagan practices remained common up to the late 18th century.
Survival & Syncretism after Formal Conversion
- [30:28] While missionaries were sometimes genuinely curious (comparing Lithuanian gods to classical deities), efforts at conversion created syncretic traditions—e.g., Lithuanian pole carving blending pagan symbolism with Christian saints.
- Sacred trees and forests retained deep cultural reverence, with lingering traditions protecting nature.
The “Silence of the Gods”: The Gradual Extinction
- [34:55] After Lithuania's official Christianization, gradual state pressure mounted—especially after the Reformation, which sharpened Christian identity.
- Increasing bureaucracy (especially in Scandinavia and Russia) enforced Christianity, sometimes brutally through forced mass baptisms.
- Over time, pagan traditions faded, merged with Christianity, or went underground; only with self-identification did Christianity truly take root among these peoples.
- In some regions of modern Russia, pre-Christian practices and beliefs endure (ex: Udmurtia, Mariel Republic), often alongside or blended with Orthodox Christian identities.
"When a new president is sworn in in the Mariel Republic... he is apparently sworn in jointly by an animist priest and an Orthodox priest"
— Francis Young [37:24]
Notable Quotes & Memorable Moments
- On the term ‘pagan’:
"It's a word that isn't all that helpful because it's a pejorative... but it's a word that most people understand what you're getting at when you use it."
— Francis Young [02:45] - On archaeological continuity:
"The objects in the landscape, whether natural or artificial, provide the continuity."
— Francis Young [11:57] - On the staged nature of Christianization:
"People were lured into the city with the promise of woolen clothes... priests did is that they gathered the people into square formations... and would sprinkle them with holy water and say, everyone in this block, you're all called John."
— Francis Young [28:10] - On pagan continuity under the surface:
"Reports from missionaries ... right to the late 18th century ... finding people who are worshipping trees and lighting sacred fires."
— Francis Young [28:40] - On syncretic legacy:
"Pole carving... is very much a pagan tradition, although nowadays it will be a Christian character, like a figure of Christ or the Virgin Mary that you'll see on the pole."
— Francis Young [31:00] - On forced conversion in Russia:
"Soldiers will arrive in your village and... force everybody to go down into the nearest body of water and a priest will say a few words and you’re now baptized, which has significant consequences for you."
— Francis Young [36:10]
Timestamps for Key Segments
- [01:23] — The forgotten ‘last pagan’ peoples of Europe
- [02:45] — Problems with the word ‘pagan’
- [04:24] — Why Europe’s own non-Christians are overlooked
- [06:23] — Diversity and commonality among Europe's pre-Christian religions
- [08:08] — Key religious practices
- [10:19] — Archaeology and continuity from prehistory
- [12:37] — The difficulty of sources: all written by Christians
- [16:11] — Why conversion was slow in certain places
- [19:14] — Language barriers in conversion: the Grand Duke as translator
- [20:03] — Lithuania’s unique status, size, and why it stayed pre-Christian
- [22:42] — The Teutonic Knights and “crusading” in the north
- [25:19] — Pagan temple in Vilnius converted into a cathedral
- [28:10] — The reality vs. propaganda of conversion; lingering paganism
- [30:28] — Syncretism and persistence of old beliefs in Christian contexts
- [34:55] — How Europe’s last pagan religions gradually died out (but not everywhere)
Conclusion
The episode illuminates the nuanced, regionally distinct survival of pre-Christian religions at Europe's margins, challenging the myth of universal medieval Christianization. Key takeaways: Christianization was a long, patchy, often superficial process, shaped by language, geography, and political factors. Many features of these religions survived locally, influencing both cultural identity and Christian practice, while in some cases, distinctly non-Christian traditions endure even today.
Recommended for listeners interested in: The history of religion, cultural continuity, Baltic and northern European history, minority and indigenous traditions, syncretism, and the reality behind myths of Christianization.