HistoryExtra Podcast
Episode: The Forgotten Wars That Redefined Europe
Host: James Osborne
Guest: Alex Plaskovsky, Professor of Archaeology, University of Reading
Date: March 2, 2026
Episode Overview
This episode unearths the underappreciated narrative of the Baltic Crusades, a centuries-long sequence of conflicts that decisively shaped the religious, political, and cultural landscape of Central and Eastern Europe. Host James Osborne speaks with historian and archaeologist Alex Plaskovsky, author of The Black Cross, to analyze how these "forgotten wars" paralleled the more famous campaigns in the Holy Land, set precedents in religious conflict, and left a legacy that endures in today's European borders and identities.
Main Discussion Points & Key Insights
1. Defining the Baltic Crusades
[02:11]
- The Baltic Crusades were campaigns waged by Catholic armies to conquer and convert the pagan societies surrounding the Baltic Sea: present-day northern Germany, Poland, the Kaliningrad region of Russia, Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and Finland.
- Objectives went beyond religious conversion, encompassing territorial acquisition, commerce, and political power.
- Occasionally, Eastern Orthodox states like Novgorod also became targets.
Quote:
"So these were wars about religion, but also about land, power and commerce."
— Alex Plaskovsky [03:04]
2. Timeline and Chronology
[03:27]
- Inspired by the First Crusade (1099).
- First papal-sanctioned Baltic crusade occurred in 1147 (the Wendish Crusade).
- Continuous fragmented crusading culture in the region from the 12th to the 16th century.
- Crusades in Prussia (1230–1283), against Lithuania (14th century), planned Greenland Crusade (1514).
Quote:
"We can say there’s almost like an ongoing crusading culture in these frontier regions..."
— Alex Plaskovsky [05:13]
3. Participants and Political Actors
[06:49]
- Papal authorities, German and Pomeranian bishops, Holy Roman Emperors, Teutonic Order, Polish dukes, Danish and Swedish royalty.
- Complex network of alliances with indigenous rulers; some cooperated for political advantage, others fiercely resisted.
- The Teutonic Order became the principal force from the 1230s onward.
Quote:
"There’s quite a lot of actors involved and it’s quite a complex, entangled network of different groups with their own agendas."
— Alex Plaskovsky [08:16]
4. Sources & How We Know This History
[08:39]
- Accounts are mainly from the conquerors: medieval chronicles, church records, legal documents, papal correspondence.
- Notable written sources: Henry’s Chronicle of Livonia, the Erik Chronicle, Prussian Chronicle by Peter of Duisburg, among others.
- Indigenous pagan societies left no written record; oral traditions and archaeological evidence fill some gaps—but with limitations.
Quote:
"Unfortunately, the indigenous societies that were conquered by crusaders did not produce their own written records... we have to rely on archaeology."
— Alex Plaskovsky [10:58]
5. The Roots: Charlemagne and Divine War
[11:28]
- Charlemagne’s conquests of the Saxons in the 8th–9th centuries set the precedent for using warfare as a tool of Christianization.
- Later rulers and the Papacy invoked Charlemagne’s legacy to legitimize violence against non-Christians.
Quote:
"Charlemagne establishes the idea that war could be a legitimate tool for Christianization, and this then becomes the underlying assumption for the Baltic Crusades."
— Alex Plaskovsky [11:53]
6. Pagan Baltic Societies Before the Crusades
[15:35]
- Decentralized societies governed by aristocratic dynasties in hill forts; warrior cultures with kin-based power structures.
- Religions were polytheistic, embedded in landscape and local authority, with similarities to but distinction from Norse paganism.
- Trade-based economies: furs, wax, amber, and slaves.
Quote:
"What you have are a series of, we can call them politically decentralized groups..."
— Alex Plaskovsky [15:35]
7. Instigation and Justification for Conflict
[20:43]
- Sparked by missionary activity encountering resistance in fractured, competitive political environments.
- Crusading ideology, following successes in the Levant, rationalized and sanctified these wars.
- Military support followed failed conversions and attacks on missionaries.
Quote:
"The context is the crusading movement provides a sort of rationale. It normalizes the violence and sanctifies it."
— Alex Plaskovsky [22:15]
8. Key Crusading Moments: Wendish & Livonian Crusades
[23:27]
- Wendish Crusade (1147): First papal-sanctioned northern crusade; set precedent though militarily inconclusive.
- Livonian Crusade (late 12th century-on): Sparked by missionary/mercantile activity, escalated by local resistance and tithes; establishment of Riga (1201) as a crusading base; formation of the Sword Brothers order.
Quote:
"It really does cement this idea of the Crusades as something that can be applied in the north."
— Alex Plaskovsky [24:49]
9. Territorial Ambition vs. Spiritual Zeal
[26:05]
- The lure of land and resources was inextricable from religious motives; for some players, the latter was a cover for the former.
- Papal authorities were sometimes uneasy about this blurred purpose.
Quote:
"These are just land grabs basically with religion being used as an excuse."
— Alex Plaskovsky [26:13]
10. Rise of the Teutonic Order
[30:11]
- Began as a German field hospital during the Third Crusade at Acre (1189), formalized into a military order combining Hospitaller and Templar traits.
- Became renowned through their discipline and care for German crusaders.
- Rapidly gained power, resources, and international prestige—became spearhead for Baltic campaigns by the 1230s.
Quote:
"They have very humble beginnings...and essentially the aims of the Third Crusade were to retake Jerusalem from Saladin...the German contingent...realized that they need to set up their own hospital to cater for their own crusaders..."
— Alex Plaskovsky [30:39]
11. Religious and Cultural Consequences of Conquest
[35:03]
- Rapid urban Christianization: In new towns, Catholicism quickly became dominant; rural areas retained “parallel” systems—syncretic mix of new Christian and indigenous pagan beliefs.
- Pre-Christian rituals and sacred sites persisted in the countryside into the 16th and 17th centuries.
- Teutonic Order focused more on control and defense rather than active conversion.
Quote:
"Elements of Catholicism are adopted, and some scholars even speak of a sort of parallel world of religious systems where you’ve got Christian and indigenous belief systems existing alongside each other..."
— Alex Plaskovsky [36:29]
12. Historical Significance and Legacy
[39:09]
- Marked the end of Europe's Christianization process.
- Cemented Papal and crusading authority within Europe.
- Enabled German and Scandinavian eastward expansion, stimulated commercial networks (especially the Hanseatic League), and fostered the rise of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
- Defined borders and state structures in Northern and Eastern Europe, laying groundwork for future political entities.
Quote:
"They’re really an integral part of the story of state building, of the formation of Europe as we know it today in terms of defining borders, in terms of the societies that are created..."
— Alex Plaskovsky [40:22]
Memorable Quotes & Moments
- “Charlemagne establishes the idea that war could be a legitimate tool for Christianization...” — Alex Plaskovsky [11:53]
- “There’s quite a lot of actors involved and it’s quite a complex, entangled network of different groups with their own agendas.” — Alex Plaskovsky [08:16]
- “Unfortunately, the indigenous societies that were conquered by crusaders did not produce their own written records... we have to rely on archaeology.” — Alex Plaskovsky [10:58]
- “So these were wars about religion, but also about land, power and commerce.” — Alex Plaskovsky [03:04]
- “They’re really an integral part of the story of state building, of the formation of Europe as we know it today in terms of defining borders…” — Alex Plaskovsky [40:22]
Suggested Listening Timestamps for Key Segments
- [02:11] — Introduction to the Baltic Crusades and their goals
- [06:49] — Who were the Crusaders? Political actors and complexity
- [08:39] — On sources and the challenge of reconstructing this history
- [11:28] — Charlemagne’s role and precedent for holy war
- [15:35] — Pagan Baltic societies: structure, religion, economics
- [23:27] — The Wendish Crusade: significance and aftereffects
- [27:25] — Livonian Crusade and founding of Riga
- [30:11] — The origins and rise of the Teutonic Order
- [35:03] — What happened after conquest? Christianity, syncretism, survival of traditions
- [39:09] — The broader significance of the Baltic Crusades in European history
Tone and Style
The conversation maintains a scholarly but accessible style, unpacking complex and little-known historical processes with clarity, analogy (particularly to more familiar Viking and Crusader histories), and occasional wry acknowledgment of past scholarly debates.
Summary
This episode provides a fascinating, multi-layered account of the Baltic Crusades, recasting them not as obscure side events but as epic, transformative wars that were pivotal in shaping the religious and political map of Europe. Through the lens of crusading ideology, state formation, cultural clash, and legacy, the discussion enriches understanding of Europe's borderlands and the enduring impact of these "forgotten wars."
For more on this topic, see Alex Plaskovsky’s new book:
The Black Cross: A History of the Baltic Crusades