Summary of "The Massacre That Shattered the Old Ottoman World" – History Extra Podcast

Published on December 16, 2024

Introduction

In the episode titled "The Massacre That Shattered the Old Ottoman World," hosted by Immediate Media on the History Extra podcast, renowned historian Danny Bird delves into the harrowing events of the 1860 Damascus massacre. Produced by the team behind BBC History Magazine, this episode offers a comprehensive exploration of a pivotal moment in Middle Eastern history, featuring in-depth discussions with Danny Bird about his latest work.

Setting the Scene: Damascus Before the Massacre [02:46 – 05:27]

Eugene Rogan opens the discussion by asking Danny Bird to contextualize Damascus in the mid-19th century. Danny Bird paints a picture of a city undergoing significant transformation. The advent of industrial Europe introduced steam shipping, drastically altering trade dynamics. Traditional camel caravans from Baghdad and pilgrimage routes were supplanted by European goods flooding into markets like Beirut, threatening local Muslim merchants and artisans.

Bird explains, “Damascus was a port of the desert, but suddenly, Beirut was becoming a real entrepot for more and more European trade” (02:59). This shift not only disrupted the established economic balance but also introduced foreign consuls from Britain, France, Prussia, Russia, and Greece. These consuls granted privileges to local Christians, inadvertently enriching them at the expense of the Muslim majority, thereby igniting underlying tensions.

The Unique Position of Damascus [05:27 – 08:01]

Rogan inquires whether Damascus was unique in its susceptibility to such violence. Bird responds that while many provincial capitals in the Ottoman Empire experienced similar dynamics, Damascus stood out due to its conservative, Arabic-speaking populace and its relatively isolated position compared to cosmopolitan coastal cities like Smyrna or Beirut. The introduction of European legal and economic influences clashed with the conservative Sunni Muslim majority, especially after the Ottoman reforms of 1856 granted legal equality to Christians and Jews.

Bird notes, “When the Ottoman state passed the reform in 1856 granting total legal equality to Christians and Jews alongside Muslims, this was a real blow to the standing of the conservative Sunni Muslim factions of Damascus” (07:51). This legislative shift undermined the Muslim majority’s traditional dominance, setting the stage for heightened communal tensions.

The Vision of a 'Sick Man of Europe' [08:01 – 11:04]

Rogan brings up the characterization of the Ottoman Empire as the "sick man of Europe." Bird acknowledges this European perspective but cautions against adopting it uncritically. He emphasizes the Ottoman Empire's adaptability and reform efforts during this period. The Tanzimat reforms (1839-1876), aimed at modernizing the empire, were a blend of responding to European pressures and internal modernization.

Bird explains, “If the Ottoman reforms were part of the explanation of what broke down in Damascus and led to a massacre in 1860, I would also argue that the success of reconstruction that followed those events was in itself a success story of the same reform process” (08:01). This duality highlights both the challenges and achievements of the Ottoman state in navigating a rapidly changing world.

The Onset of Violence: Prelude to Massacre [11:04 – 17:19]

Rogan probes whether the 1860 violence was an aberration or part of a larger pattern of state violence. Bird asserts that the 1860 massacres were unprecedented in their scale and brutality within the Ottoman context. He compares them to later atrocities, such as the Armenian Genocide, positioning the Damascus events as an "original sin" in communal violence (09:45).

Describing the buildup to the massacre, Bird details the escalating tensions between Muslims and Christians. Influenced by the conflict in Mount Lebanon, Muslim merchants in Damascus grew resentful of the economic gains among Christians. Misguided fears and rumors fueled a mob mentality:

“It was in that febrile atmosphere that you had really just a spark to set off a Muslim mob that ran amok through the streets of the Christian quarter” (15:56).

The massacre itself spanned seven to eight days, characterized by rampant looting, murder, rape, and arson targeting the Christian community. Approximately 5,000 Christians were killed, with much of their property destroyed. Remarkably, interventions by key Muslim notables prevented total annihilation, allowing around 85% of the Christian community to survive.

European Intervention and Ottoman Response [17:19 – 26:32]

Rogan inquires about the role of European powers during the massacre. Bird recounts that European nations swiftly responded, particularly France under Napoleon III, which dispatched a 6,000-strong intervention force to protect Christians and support Ottoman efforts to restore order (17:32). However, this intervention was met with Ottoman suspicions of colonial ambitions, given France's recent occupation of Algeria.

A multinational commission, including representatives from Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, was sent to advise Ottoman officials on restructuring governance in Mount Lebanon to prevent future violence. Fouad Pasha, a key Ottoman statesman and reformer, spearheaded efforts to contain the crisis and preserve Ottoman sovereignty in the region.

Danny Bird’s Archival Discovery [19:56 – 26:32]

Rogan shifts focus to Danny Bird's personal research journey. Bird shares an anecdote about discovering previously uncataloged consular correspondence in the American archives, authored by Michael Meshaka, America's first Vice Consul in Damascus. These Arabic-language notebooks provided invaluable, contemporaneous insights into the events leading up to and during the massacre.

Bird emphasizes the significance of Meshaka’s reports, stating:

“His reports capture the mood, the fears, the detail of Damascus in far more granularity than any of the later sources I've ever read” (20:12).

This discovery allowed Bird to construct a nuanced narrative, balancing Christian and Muslim perspectives and understanding the complex societal dynamics of 19th-century Damascus.

Blame and Accountability [26:32 – 35:41]

When asked about attribution of blame, Bird contrasts Meshaka’s initial reports with his later historical account. While Meshaka blamed the Ottoman governor, Ahmed Pasha, for failing to protect Christians and possibly inciting violence, Bird's broader analysis suggests that systemic reforms and shifting societal norms played pivotal roles.

Bird states:

“He doesn't see it in strictly sectarian terms, but a failing governance by the Ottoman state and its representatives for sure” (26:44).

This perspective underscores the interplay between political reforms, external pressures, and internal societal changes in precipitating the massacre.

A Turning Point in Middle Eastern History [28:25 – 32:11]

Rogan asks Bird to elaborate on why the 1860 massacre is considered a turning point. Bird explains that it marked the transition from the Ottoman millet system—where religious communities were self-governing but second-class citizens—to a modern concept of Ottoman citizenship with equal rights and representation. This shift was further propelled by infrastructural developments like telegraphs, improved highways, and the advent of urban infrastructure, which collectively modernized Ottoman society.

Bird articulates:

“I think it's Ottoman modernity in that distinctly translated sense that we can really see 1860 as a major turning point where there was a before and there was an after” (28:25).

This modernization not only altered economic and social structures but also redefined political relations among different communities within the empire.

Echoes of the Past: Armenian Genocide Comparison [32:11 – 35:41]

Rogan draws a parallel between the 1860 Damascus massacre and the Armenian Genocide. Bird cautiously agrees that while both events involve communal violence, each genocidal incident has its unique precursors and contexts. He emphasizes that the Armenian Genocide was driven by specific wartime dynamics, such as the perception of Armenians as a fifth column during World War I.

Bird remarks:

“It's important to look to each genocidal moment for its own specific origins” (32:11).

This distinction highlights the complexity of mass violence and the necessity of understanding each event within its own historical framework.

Relevance to Modern-Day Syria [35:41 – 39:59]

Rogan inquires about the relevance of the 1860 events to contemporary Syria, especially in light of the brutal civil war following the Arab Spring. Bird acknowledges the profound differences in scale and context but identifies enduring lessons in societal reconstruction and reconciliation. While the 1860 massacre involved the destruction of neighborhoods and loss of life on a smaller scale compared to the millions affected by the recent conflict, the underlying themes of communal division and the possibility of rebuilding offer poignant reflections.

Bird states:

“This story is not just about how a society breaks down into mass violence, but it's also a story about how a society can reconstruct and find a way towards reconciliation” (35:51).

He also notes that for Syrian Christians, the legacy of the 1860 events remains a living memory, influencing their experiences and responses to contemporary conflicts.

Conclusion

The episode culminates with Bird emphasizing the importance of historical memory to prevent the recurrence of past atrocities. By studying the 1860 Damascus massacre, contemporary societies can glean insights into the mechanisms of communal violence and the pathways to reconciliation and reconstruction.

As Eugene Rogan concludes, listeners are encouraged to engage with Bird's work, "The Damascus Events, the 1860 Massacre and the Destruction of the Old Ottoman World," published by Alan Lane, to gain a deeper understanding of this critical juncture in Ottoman and Middle Eastern history.

Notable Quotes

• Danny Bird [02:59]: “Damascus was a port of the desert, but suddenly, Beirut was becoming a real entrepot for more and more European trade.”

• Danny Bird [07:51]: “When the Ottoman state passed the reform in 1856 granting total legal equality to Christians and Jews alongside Muslims, this was a real blow to the standing of the conservative Sunni Muslim factions of Damascus.”

• Danny Bird [15:56]: “It was in that febrile atmosphere that you had really just a spark to set off a Muslim mob that ran amok through the streets of the Christian quarter.”

• Danny Bird [20:12]: “His reports capture the mood, the fears, the detail of Damascus in far more granularity than any of the later sources I've ever read.”

• Danny Bird [28:25]: “I think it's Ottoman modernity in that distinctly translated sense that we can really see 1860 as a major turning point where there was a before and there was an after.”

• Danny Bird [32:11]: “It's important to look to each genocidal moment for its own specific origins.”

• Danny Bird [35:51]: “This story is not just about how a society breaks down into mass violence, but it's also a story about how a society can reconstruct and find a way towards reconciliation.”

Closing Remarks

Produced by Daniel Kramer Arden, this episode of the History Extra Podcast offers a profound exploration of the 1860 Damascus massacre, its causes, consequences, and enduring legacy. By weaving together archival research, historical analysis, and contemporary reflections, Danny Bird provides listeners with a nuanced understanding of a tragedy that significantly altered the Ottoman Empire and shaped the modern Middle East.

For more information, listeners are encouraged to visit HistoryExtra.com and explore additional resources related to this episode.