Tudor England | 4. Religion and superstition

Summary

History Extra Podcast: Tudor England | Episode 4 – Religion and Superstition

Release Date: December 19, 2024
Host: Emily Brifitts
Guest: Tracey Borman, Author, Historian, and Broadcaster

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Introduction

In the fourth installment of the History Extra podcast series, host Emily Brifitts delves deep into the intricate tapestry of religion and superstition in Tudor England. Joined by the esteemed historian Tracey Borman, the episode unpacks how faith and folklore influenced daily life, societal structures, and political maneuvers during one of England's most tumultuous eras.

The Pivotal Role of Religion in Tudor Society

Emily Brifitts introduces the topic by highlighting the centrality of religion in Tudor England. Tracey Borman emphasizes, “It was absolutely pivotal. I can't overemphasize how important religion was in the lives of everybody” (02:42). She explains that religion permeated every aspect of life, from communal gatherings in churches to personal beliefs about the afterlife. Unlike today’s largely secular society, Tudor England’s populace was deeply devout, striving to attain heaven and avoid hell.

The English Reformation: Origins and Impact

The conversation shifts to the English Reformation, a seismic shift initiated in the 1530s. Borman provides a succinct overview: “The Reformation really gathered ground in England during the 1530s, and it began with Henry VIII's break” (03:44). She argues that Anne Boleyn was instrumental in this process, stating, “if there hadn't been Anne Boleyn, there wouldn't have been the English Reformation” (04:33). Henry VIII’s desire to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon led to the severance from the Catholic Church, establishing the Church of England with the king at its head.

Key Differences Post-Reformation:
Before the Reformation, England was intertwined with Roman Catholicism, but the establishment of the Church of England marked a shift in allegiance from the Pope to the monarch. Borman draws parallels to modern Brexit, noting the “sense of sudden isolation” experienced by the English people (05:54). The dissolution of the monasteries under Henry VIII had profound effects, including the displacement of communities, loss of employment, and redistribution of land to the Crown and rising gentry, fundamentally altering England’s social and economic landscape.

Impact of the Dissolution of the Monasteries

Borman elaborates on the dissolution’s immediate repercussions: “they were seen as being synonymous with Rome and they had to go” (08:07). The closure of monasteries led to widespread unemployment, increased vagrancy, and the dismantling of community support structures like hospitals and schools. The destruction and sale of these institutions not only reshaped the physical landscape but also ignited dissent and rebellion, most notably the Pilgrimage of Grace.

Key Figures Driving the Reformation

The Reformation was propelled by influential individuals:

• Thomas Cromwell: Described as “the driving force behind the English Reformation” (13:05), Cromwell orchestrated legislative changes and the dissolution of monasteries to bolster the royal treasury.
• Anne Boleyn: More than Henry VIII’s mistress, she was a fervent reformer who introduced heretical ideas that challenged the Catholic orthodoxy.
• Thomas Cranmer: As Archbishop of Canterbury, Cranmer played a pivotal role in shaping the Church of England’s doctrines.

Borman clarifies a common misconception: “Henry VIII never became a Protestant. He always remained Catholic, just not Roman Catholic” (16:17).

Intertwining of Religion and Politics

Religion and politics were inseparably linked in Tudor England. Borman states, “It was a political motive for the religious reforms because Henry wanted his annulment from Catherine of Aragon” (16:23). The Reformation served Henry’s personal desires for a male heir and furthered political agendas, including the redistribution of monastic wealth. This nexus of faith and power led to courtly factions, with conservatives like the Duke of Norfolk opposing reformers such as Cromwell and Cranmer.

Resistance and Rebellion among Ordinary People

Despite the overarching shifts, not all accepted the changes willingly. Borman likens the populace’s resistance to telling people, “if you were told the Internet doesn’t exist” (19:24). The Pilgrimage of Grace exemplifies widespread unrest, as communities vehemently opposed religious upheaval. The episode illustrates how these reforms were met with fear, confusion, and outright rebellion, highlighting the deep-rooted attachment to traditional beliefs.

Edward VI: Radicalizing the Reformation

Upon Henry VIII’s death, his son Edward VI ascended to the throne at nine years old. Borman describes Edward as “a religious reformer” who furthered Protestant doctrines by introducing the Book of Common Prayer in 1549 and its revision in 1552 (20:54). Under Edward, the Church of England adopted more radical Protestant practices, stripping away Catholic rituals and symbols to create a purer form of worship. However, these changes also led to increased dissent and subsequent rebellions, such as the Prayer Book Rebellion and Kett's Rebellion.

Mary I: The Counter-Reformation and Religious Persecution

Mary I, Edward’s successor, sought to reverse the Reformation. Borman explains, “Mary was determined to essentially unpick the Reformation to return England to obedience to the Pope” (24:19). Her fervent Catholicism led to the persecution of Protestants, earning her the moniker “Bloody Mary” for the execution of around 300 Protestant heretics. This attempt to restore Catholicism intensified religious tensions, as many had benefited from or embraced Protestant reforms.

Elizabeth I: Establishing Religious Compromise and Stability

Elizabeth I emerged as a pragmatic leader determined to unify her realm through religious compromise. Borman highlights Elizabeth’s strategic approach: “Elizabeth is often quoted as saying that she did not wish to make windows into men's souls” (29:08). By passing the Act of Uniformity in 1559, Elizabeth established the Elizabethan Church, which balanced Protestant reforms with traditional Catholic practices. This compromise ensured relative religious stability, allowing individuals private beliefs while enforcing public conformity.

Superstition and Folklore in a Time of Reform

Despite the sweeping religious changes, superstitious beliefs remained deeply ingrained in society. Borman notes, “superstitious beliefs are slow to die” (36:16). Folklore and superstition provided explanations for the inexplicable, offering solace and control in an uncertain world. Practices such as alchemy, believed to transform metals or grant eternal life, persisted even among the elite, including Queen Elizabeth I.

Popular Superstitions:

• Omens and Signs: A hare running in front of someone was considered unlucky.
• Childbirth Rituals: Mothers used superstitious practices like tying ox skin around their thighs to ensure safe deliveries.
• Lunacy: The term “lunatic” is derived from beliefs linking madness to the moon’s influence.
• Witchcraft: Accusations of witchcraft were rampant, particularly targeting vulnerable women. Methods like "ducking" a witch in water often resulted in death, irrespective of guilt or innocence.

The Persecution of Witchcraft

Witchcraft accusations intensified during the Tudor period as fears and misunderstandings about natural phenomena prevailed. Borman describes the shift in perception: “witches had been seen as a force for good… suddenly… seen as a force for evil” (42:26). This demonization led to widespread hysteria, where neighbors often turned against one another, and accusations were a tool for social control or personal vendetta.

Societal Impact of Religion and Superstition

The interplay between religious reform and superstitious belief created a society fraught with fear, uncertainty, and conflict. Borman reflects, “England was largely a Protestant country by the end of the Tudor period, but there had been an awful lot of turmoil and turbulence and bloodshed along the way” (45:06). The era’s relentless religious and superstitious unrest reveals the profound fears and concerns of its people, grappling with existential questions and the volatile shifts in their belief systems.

Conclusion

Emily Brifitts wraps up the episode by underscoring the enduring legacy of Tudor England’s religious transformations and superstitious practices. The tumultuous blend of faith, politics, and folklore not only reshaped England’s societal fabric but also laid the groundwork for modern religious and cultural landscapes. The episode sets the stage for the next discussion, promising an exploration of Tudor England’s global interactions.

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Notable Quotes:

• Tracey Borman: “It was absolutely pivotal. I can't overemphasize how important religion was in the lives of everybody.” (02:42)
• Tracey Borman: “Henry VIII never became a Protestant. He always remained Catholic, just not Roman Catholic.” (16:17)
• Tracey Borman: “They were seen as being synonymous with Rome and they had to go.” (08:07)
• Emily Brifitts: “Elizabeth is often quoted as saying that she did not wish to make windows into men's souls.” (29:08)

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This comprehensive exploration by Emily Brifitts and Tracey Borman offers listeners an engaging and informative glimpse into the complex world of Tudor England, highlighting how religion and superstition were not just beliefs but powerful forces that shaped every facet of life.

Transcript

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[Tracey Borman]

Bob Dylan is the reason for it.

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Inspired by the true story if anyone.

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[Emily Brifitts]

Are you a freak?

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Hope so.

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And starring Timothee Chalamet as Bob Dylan. He defied everyone.

[Tracey Borman]

Turn it down.

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They lied to change everything.

[Tracey Borman]

Make some noise.

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[Emily Brifitts]

Extra Production from vicious court politicking and cultural innovation to global voyages of discovery and total religious upheaval, Tudor England was a turbulent and exciting place to be. In this History Extra podcast series, we're heading right to the beating heart of the era to uncover what life was like for those who lived through it. I'm your host, Emily Brifitts and I'm joined by author, historian and broadcaster Tracey Borman. In this fourth episode, we'll be unpicking the complex web of Tudor beliefs, from the devout to the superstitious. Welcome back, Tracey. Thank you for joining us again.

[Tracey Borman]

It's great to be with you.

[Emily Brifitts]

Now, let's start with religion. We've said we're going to talk religion and superstition, so let's start with that one. Broadly speaking, what role did religion play in ordinary people's lives in Tudor area?

[Tracey Borman]

It was absolutely pivotal. I can't overemphasize how important religion was in the lives of everybody. In the Tudor period, rich and poor, royal and commoner, religion punctuated people's lives. Everybody, unless they were in serious trouble, would attend church. Churches were at the center of communities. People were devout, they believed in God, they believed in heaven and hell, and they would do their utmost to attain the former of those and avoid the latter at all costs. So in what is largely today a secular society, it can be hard to understand just how integral religion was to the Tudors.

[Emily Brifitts]

Now, of course, we had to come onto it. The Reformation. We can't go through this podcast series without talking about this pivotal moment. Could you give us a 60 second rundown of it?

[Tracey Borman]

Yes. So the Reformation really gathered ground in England during the 1530s, and it began with Henry VIII's break. Now, it has been argued that the Reformation would have happened anyway, that England was ripe for the reform of some of the corrupt practices of the Catholic Church. But for my money, if there hadn't been Anne Boleyn, there wouldn't have been the English Reformation. Or at least not in the same way. Henry was desperate to rid himself of his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, the Pope said no. So Henry ejected papal authority and made himself head of a new Church of England and set in train sweeping religious reforms that are felt all the way up to the present day.

[Emily Brifitts]

So how transformative was it for the ordinary person?

[Tracey Borman]

This was one of those changes that really did impact people at grassroots level. Often when we're talking about Tudor history, and in particular, who's Henry VIII married to this day of the week? Do people know? Do they even care? Possibly not religion. They absolutely do care. It is all important in people's lives. And now the world had been turned on its head for ordinary people and they didn't understand what they were supposed to believe. Why suddenly the Pope was like the Antichrist and the King was head of all, and there was a whole new church and there was a whole new suite of religious beliefs. And the Roman Catholicism that had been the linchpin of England for centuries was now no more. It had been ousted, replaced by a new church, by a new set of beliefs. And this meant such a huge amount to people. It changed people's lives. This idea that now, oh, it's not the Pope that we owe allegiance to first and foremost, it's the King. And that must have taken some getting used to.

[Emily Brifitts]

What were the main differences? If we're talking about the before and after?

[Tracey Borman]

So obviously the Main difference is they have a new church, it's the Church of England, it doesn't have anything to do with Rome. And so this sense of England as being part of a larger whole, Roman Catholic Europe, that was at an end. Now, of course we can relate in recent times, the English Reformation break with Rome and Brexit, they do have some similarities and it's this sense of sudden isolation, I think, for the people of England. But there are also some more practical changes. And with the Reformation comes the most seismic change in the form of the dissolution of the monasteries. These symbols of the old religious order, these incredible beautiful huge buildings had dominated England for centuries and they'd been at the heart of communities providing education, food, employment, charitable causes, purposes, medicinal support, all manner of things. The monasteries had really been your local one stop shop, as well as being, of course, religious centres. But now they were seen as being synonymous with Rome and they had to go. And of course, Henry VIII had another incentive in dissolving the monasteries. They were worth quite a lot of, was the largest landholder in the kingdom and it had enormous wealth. And Cromwell, Thomas Cromwell, Henry VIII's right hand man, spied an opportunity to not only forward the cause of reform, but to swell the royal coffers, to dissolve these monastic houses, divert their riches to the crown. And this was really like lighting the blue touch paper for the people of England. Yes, they might just about get used to a new church and a new form of worship, but when the monasteries were destroyed, they were not prepared to just lie down and accept that. And it did provoke dissent, unrest and ultimately rebellion. So on a day to day level, the religious change that affected by far the most people has to be the dissolution.

[Emily Brifitts]

So with the dissolution of the monasteries, how sorely affected were these local communities?

[Tracey Borman]

Incredibly, so it led to instant unemployment. People had found a great deal of employment at their local monasteries and of course the monks themselves now not only had no employment, but they had nowhere to live, no means of feeding themselves, supporting themselves. There were suddenly lots of vagrants, beggars on the streets as a result of the dissolution. They provided helped the poor and the sick that had now disappeared almost overnight. Land was another big change, because the monasteries had owned huge swathes of the kingdom. Now that land was sold to the Crown and to the gentry, and this new class was rising up that could gain status and privilege through buying up monastic land, converting monasteries into new stately homes for themselves. And so the landscape of England was changing and so was the social structure. And farmers now faced higher rent as a Result of the dissolution, much more favourable rates when the Church was the owner of the land. Hospitals, leper houses, almshouses, all of those had been provided by the monasteries. Now those religious institutions were closed. Things like, on a more cultural level, libraries, art collections had been found in monasteries as well. Now that was all either destroyed or sold off. The dissolution, as well as having a huge impact on local communities, went all the way to the heart of Henry VIII's court. And it was really the beginning of the end for Anne Boleyn. Yes, she was struggling because of her failure to give Henry a son, but she and Cromwell argued over the dissolution and this would be a deadly feud for Anne. She quite admirably argued that the proceeds from the monasteries should go to charitable causes, that the King should now be responsible for providing for all those who'd lost out. Whereas Cromwell thought, no, all of the riches should just go to Henry to do with as he wished. Well, it was such a bitter feud between Anne Boleyn and Cromwell, who had been allies before then, that Anne told him she wished to see his head off his shoulders. That was a dangerous threat to make to the most powerful man in England Next. And really, I think Cromwell was gunning for Anne from this day forward and made sure that it was her head, not his, that would be lost.

[Emily Brifitts]

So if we go back to basics, almost this is fascinating politicking going on, but what about the actual reform itself? What were the major differences in beliefs, practices that were introduced?

[Tracey Borman]

So the main differences between Catholics and, let's call them Protestants, although in Henry VIII's reign, they're not yet really that they're reformers, firstly, authority. So Catholics believed that the Bible and traditions were all sort of complementary sources of authority, while the Protestants believed that the Bible was the only source of authority. So, in other words, Catholics tended to believe more in the authority of the Pope and priests and Protestants believed that everybody, rich and poor, should have a direct line to God, if you like, should be able to access the word of God through the Bible, that the Bible should be translated into English so that it was readily understood by everybody. Because before then, church services would have been incomprehensible to most people. They were in Latin, they were often sung, large parts of the service were sung. And so people would go and they were perhaps comforted by the ritual familiarity, but they wouldn't really have understood the word of God. That was really priests alone and the educated. But now Protestants believe that everybody should have that right to interpret the Bible really as they thought best. And a Key facet of Protestant belief was about salvation. So Protestants believe that to get to heaven to be saved, you could do this through faith alone, whereas Catholics believed that the Church was integral, that you had to rely quite heavily on priests and good works and kind of following all the traditional rituals. And then if you tickle the boxes, you might make it to heaven. Whereas faith was really the linchpin of the Protestant belief.

[Emily Brifitts]

And who were the key figures in instigating these reforms and changes.

[Tracey Borman]

So really, we can say that Martin Luther was, if you like, the father of the Reformation. And he absolutely predated the Reformation in England. So 1517 was the year that he pinned his 95 theses, his attack on the Roman Catholic Church, onto that door. And that rapidly spread across Germany and other parts of continental Europe. But here in England, those ideas had started to infiltrate, certainly, and they'd started to infiltrate the court itself. Now, Thomas Cromwell, first and foremost, he is the one pushing reform and he is the one really in pole position to influence things. He's Henry VIII's chief minister. He's a brilliant strategist, administrator, he's a lawyer, he's probably the most brilliant legal mind in the country. And really, he is the driving force behind the English Reformation. When you look at the various statutes, the numerous statutes that were drafted and pushed through Parliament, they're all in Cromwell's hand. He is the architect of the Reformation. And in the early days of the Reformation, he is working hand in glove with Anne Boleyn. We must remember Anne as more than just the great love interest. She is a passionate reformer. She's picked up these ideas during her years in France, where she is in her youth and already bubbling away in France is this idea that the Roman Catholic Church is corrupt. It absolutely needs reforming. And so Anne is already fired up when she comes to England in 1522, and she's pushing Henry along the path of reform. She's giving him books that really are pretty much heretical, they are dangerous to own. But she's showing him such works as William Tyndale and the Obedience of a Christian man, which first plants the See in Henry's mind that actually kings are above the Pope, they're above the Church, Royal authority ought to be second only to God. And so we can't really overstate the importance of Anne Boleyn. Thomas Cranmer as well, Archbishop of Canterbury, he was pivotal to all of this and a great ally of both Anne, he was her personal chaplain, and also Thomas Cromwell. And so there were some leading figures for reform. And actually probably bottom of the list at court was Henry himself, because there's a sense that he's kind of being pushed almost against his will. He sees the political incentive for reform because he wants his annulment from Catherine of Aragon. But in his heart he stays a Catholic and a good Catholic. And this is a really important distinction to make. And I do like to give listeners one takeaway at least per episode. And I think this would be the one from today. People think, oh, Henry viii, Reformation. He became a Protestant. He never became a Protestant. He always remained Catholic, just not Roman Catholic.

[Emily Brifitts]

This leads us perfectly into the next question. How far was religion wrapped up with politics?

[Tracey Borman]

Completely inextricably. You really, really cannot separate them out in this period. And so it was a political motive for the religious reforms because Henry wanted his annulment from Catherine of Aragon. He desperately needed a male heir. Henry was also passionately in love, or at least obsessed with Anne Boleyn. And he increasingly saw the Reformation as a way of marrying Anne and having that vital male heir. And then the dissolution of the monasteries became political because all the great nobles wanted a piece of that. They wanted the land, they wanted the riches and the influence that came from this wholesale destruction of these religious buildings and institutions that had dominated England as well. Factions formed at court and factions formed along religious lines. And so you get the conservatives with the likes of the Duke of Norfolk, Sir Nicholas Carew and Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester. Then you get the reformers, Thomas Cromwell, head of that party, Thomas Cranmer, and all of those who firmly believe that the Church is corrupt, it needs to be reformed. So you can't separate the two. It starts with religion having to deliver what Henry wants politically. Then the whole thing becomes so enmeshed, you literally can't separate the two.

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[Emily Brifitts]

This, you've got the ordinary man and woman. Did society just wholeheartedly accept these changes?

[Tracey Borman]

Not a bit of it, of course. There was resistance because this affected people's lives so profoundly. And it was like being told today that the Internet doesn't exist. Something so fundamental that everybody knows this is the way it is. And then you're told, nope, black is, in fact white. And you've got it all wrong all these years. And Tudor crime and punishment is brutal enough for many people to conform because they are afraid of the consequences. But many more want to stay true to their beliefs. And those beliefs are rooted in the old church, the traditional church, in obedience to Rome. And they're simply not prepared to just believe as the King tells them they should believe. And this resentment eventually boils over into open revolt, most notably with the Pilgrimage of Grace. And it's so telling that this pilgrimage, this rebellion, spreads so rapidly, it's like wildfire. And these rebels are literally preaching to the converted. They wouldn't have been able to secure such rapid, such widespread support if people had been thinking, well, yeah, actually, maybe Henry VIII's got a point.

[Emily Brifitts]

If we take a step away from Henry viii, did his son Edward follow in his father's footsteps in terms of his religious policy?

[Tracey Borman]

I'm so pleased you asked this, Emily, because we talk about the Reformation and we talk about Henry viii, and that usually ends there. But actually, his young son Edward, who was just nine when he became king in 1547, he took things a stage further, and you might say he kind of cemented his father's reforms. Now, Edward had been raised a Protestant, and he was fiercely opposed to papal authority. When he was still a very young child, he'd written a whole essay about how the Pope was the Antichrist. I mean, this was a young man who completely believed everything he said. There was no sense that he was doing this for political ends, as his father had Done. He was through and through a religious reformer. So he took things a stage further, actually a little bit too far for some of his subjects. He introduced a Book of common prayer in 1549. Now, this book replaced Latin services with English ones. So big changes. And it was soon succeeded by a revision, a second book of Cromwell prayer in 1552, which was more reformed still. It was quite radical. And Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, who'd been so instrumental in Henry VIII's reign, now really was given full authority, full freedom, to realize his reformist dreams. Sadly, Thomas Cromwell wasn't. He'd already been executed by Edward's father. But at least their Cranmer was flying the flag. And there was a very physical result of these changes. Catholic worship had involved lots of symbolism, traditions, borderline superstitious practices, relics, this sale of pieces of the cross or a bone of the hand of Christ or whatever. And they were sold for enormous sums or very small sums, depending on the quality of the artifact. They were now outlawed. In fact, they had been under Henry, but really strictly now. And also churches, they'd been very beautifully and very colorfully decorated throughout the centuries, but now that was seen as Catholicism and Papistry. And so all of it was stripped away and churches became much more pure, simple, so that people's minds weren't distracted from God when they attended church. And Edward went further. He repealed various heresy laws that had been established by his father, and all churches were now forced to use this new Book of Common Prayer and to hold services in England. So Edward was even more radical, really. Well, a lot more radical than Henry, who personally had been quite conservative, even if he'd instituted great change. And there was rebellion too, in Edward's reign, the Prayer Book rebellion, and. And Kett's rebellion in 1549 had more than a hint of religious dissent to it as well.

[Emily Brifitts]

Of course, Edward and then his successor, Mary, did not share the same viewpoint on this at all. What role did Mary's attempt to restore Catholicism play in fueling religious tension?

[Tracey Borman]

It was like a pendulum that swung back and forth. You have Henry swinging towards reform, then towards the end of his reign, back towards conservatism, then you have Edward back towards radical reform, then Mary back to Roman Catholicism. So Mary has always been a very devout Roman Catholic, fiercely opposed to her father's reforms. She's had to keep a lid on it during her brother Edward's reign in order to keep her head. But now she is queen and she's not gonna hold back, and she is determined to Basically unpick the Reformation to return England to obedience to the Pope, to restore the monasteries and repeal all of these various acts that have ushered in the Reformation. But Mary was so blinded by her beliefs that she did not see that even many of England's Catholics didn't want this. It was all very complicated now, because quite a few of those had profited from the Reformation. They didn't want to give up their newly acquired lands. And there was a growing reformist movement, genuine reform in England. People had started to embrace this new world order and they didn't just want to immediately abandon that and go back to how things used to be, because it's easy to forget the Catholic Church. The Roman Catholic Church had been pretty rife with abuse and corruption. Yes, it was a force for good, particularly with the monasteries, but there was also a lot of bad in there. And so there was a genuine need for reform that Henry had responded to. But now Mary, who's saying no, gonna turn back the clock. It's as if the Reformation never happened. And as people started to oppose her, so she persecuted people ever more harshly and of course, earns her nickname of Bloody Mary. Thanks to the burning of Protestant heretics, about 300 Protestants were put to the flames during her brief and very bloody reign.

[Emily Brifitts]

It's an extraordinary number of people. Let's finish off the three children of Henry viii. How did Elizabeth I approach religious policy?

[Tracey Borman]

Elizabeth tackled this head on. She was determined from the outset to stick around for a long time. She'd had two short reigning sibling, and then, of course, the even shorter reigning Lady Jane Grey as well. She wanted to get off on the right foot by just once and for all, settling the vexed question of religion. And what I love about Elizabeth is she was a pragmatist and she'd learned so much from her sister Mary of what not to do. I think, in that when you're a monarch, you don't have the luxury of standing on principle. You have to take account of the wishes of your people. And this is exactly what Elizabeth did. So very early in her reign, she and her ministers managed to pass the act of Uniformity, 1559, which laid the groundwork for the Elizabethan Church, and it restored the 1552 Book of Common Prayer, but crucially, kept many of the old Catholic practices. So this was a compromise, really. It had elements of reform, it had elements of conservatism. The bill was so hotly debated that actually, in the end, it was decided by just three votes. That's how narrow a margin it was. But it was such a crucial moment for Elizabeth, this victory, this establishment of the act of uniformity, because it's almost like, okay, we've sorted that. Now I can build a successful reign. Elizabeth is often quoted as saying that she did not wish to make windows into men's souls. Now, she didn't actually say that. It's probably Francis Bacon who uttered those words. But it does neatly encapsulate Elizabeth's approach to religion. In other words, look, this is the official religion, but you can kind of believe what you like in your hearts. I'm not gonna probe into your private thoughts like my father did. She wanted peace and unity above all else. One interesting point of detail is that in order to push through these changes, Elizabeth's title was changed from Supreme Head of the Church, as had been her father and her brother Edward, to Supreme Governor, because there was still a lot of opposition to the idea that a woman could be head of anything, let alone the Church. And so Supreme Governor. And that title endures to this very day. King Charles III is Supreme Governor of the English Church.

[Emily Brifitts]

How fascinating that it's continued and stayed the same. Now there is so much back and forth through this period. How did ordinary people cope with this turbulence? And what was everyone else thinking on the continent?

[Tracey Borman]

Well, yes, and for ordinary people, it must have been tortuously difficult because, oh, who's on the throne this week? What should we believe? Are we bringing back relics and the sale of indulgences where you lessen your time in purgatory? Or are we actually going to English Bibles and just relying on our own faith to get us into heaven? I think many people were pragmatic and went with the flow because, you know, there was a lot to be said for that in terms of their own personal safety and prosperity. Others agonized with their consciences much more, whether they were Catholic or whether they were Protestant. And it was incredibly challenging for people. And in this age of slow communication, it must have just, on a practical level, been difficult to keep up with the latest developments at the heart of power in London. Well, some people did stand up for what they believed, and they ended up being accused, sometimes convicted of heresy, of not believing as the King or the Queen did. Others had to pay recusancy fines. They refused to attend church, so they're sort of absteming from the whole thing. So it was difficult. It really did have a major impact on people's lives because people devoutly believed that their actions had consequences for their afterlife. And, of course, you're Gonna wanna get it right. Therefore, elsewhere in Europe, the Reformation was going strong now, and it had been since 1517, and Martin Luther's theses first appeared and rapidly spreading to other parts of Europe. And other branches of Protestantism were starting to spring up, such as Zwingliism, Calvinism, lots of different branches of the same essential reformist beliefs. And then there was the Counter Reformation, with a huge pushback from the Catholic Church. And all of this was hugely influential on international politics and diplomacy, because, of course, different powers in Europe pinned their colours to different churches and beliefs. And so religion, politics, warfare, it's all now very intertwined. Quite what the people of Europe thought when they looked at England is an interesting one to contemplate there, because, yes, they're going through similar reforms and turbulence, but things are changing so quickly in England, back and forth in a very extreme way. They must have thought, thank goodness we don't live in England.

[Emily Brifitts]

One of the things you mentioned there was about heresy, what was actually considered heretical at the time, there's a constant changing definition, but also, were there any major heresies that we should know about?

[Tracey Borman]

So heresy, in a nutshell, was holding a belief that went against the state or the monarch's religious views. So quite hard to keep up, really. It was often linked with treason, because that was defined as plotting against the monarch. And famously, heresy was one of the charges levied at Thomas Cromwell at his downfall in 1540. But what constituted the crime of heresy, of course, differed in each reign according to the official religion. And mary burned, well, 280, I think around 300 people for heresy, which meant not seeing the Pope as head of the Church. And then, of course, we're back under Elizabeth to absolutely seeing the Pope as the Antichrist. And now, once again, it's all about personal faith. So the definition of heresy changed over time. Now, there were various sort of major heresies, and probably the most notorious was Lollardy. Now, this was a Christian religious movement that actually took place in England from the mid 14th century, so it predates the Tudors, but it continued into the Tudor period, into the 16th century, and it sought reform. First and foremost, Lollards were followers of John Wycliffe, who was a Catholic theologian expelled from Oxford in 1381 for heresy. Now, he criticized the Catholic Church, especially its teaching about the Eucharist. He believed the Church was corrupt, too hierarchical, and he wanted to promote more of a personal belief. He also advocated an English translation, the Bible, and making theology more accessible to a wider audience. So I think quite rightly. It's been seen as an early iteration of Protestantism, actually. But at the time, England wasn't ready for it. England wasn't quite there yet. And the term lollard was actually a derogatory term given to Wycliffe's followers by church officials. And it might come from a word that meant to mumble, which references the Lollard's practice of learning and reciting Scripture, kind of by rote, or from the word lollars, perhaps, which meant idle loafers. It was certainly a derogatory term anyway. And this was seen as quite an extreme sect. And anybody found to be a lollard would be severely punished. They may well lose their lives.

[Emily Brifitts]

More broadly, how was heresy and dissent punished? How was it looked at?

[Tracey Borman]

So the punishment for heresy in Tudor times depended a little bit on gender. Men tended to be burned at the stake, but we know that women were as well. In the reign of Mary, Tudor, women and nobility were beheaded, so a much nicer death for them. But there were a variety of other punishments, slightly less severe. The pillory. This is when the offender would stand in the pillory, where the weight of their body would tear off part of their earlobe. So still pretty horrendous. They'd be put in the stocks, there'd be public floggings or they would be branded. So all pretty horrific punishments that you would want to do your utmost to.

[Emily Brifitts]

Avoid, really horrendous ones there, of course, religious beliefs, devout beliefs, they're not the only beliefs in the Tudor period. And we need to go on to talk a little bit about superstition, beliefs in folklore, witchcraft, of course, how did religious changes during this period, you know, the Reformation being quite major, shape attitudes towards folklore and the supernatural.

[Tracey Borman]

This is so interesting because even though it's an era of reform, superstitious beliefs are slow to die and people just kind of like a mixed bag. They like to keep the traditions that they're fond of and that they find useful, while perhaps embracing some of the new ones. But undoubtedly, that said, the English Reformation has a significant impact on folklore and superstition, and it led to the persecution of practices that had been seen as quite ordinary, actually, for centuries. Certainly the Catholic Church had had a relatively tolerant attitude towards folk practices, even those that could be seen as witchcraft or certainly magical anyway. But now it was a new world. Now pretty much everybody was under suspicion. So if people did cling to their superstitious beliefs, they had to be quite discreet about it. They had to be careful, because this dividing line between Catholicism and magic, which had always been blurred with the kind of worship of relics and the rich decorations and the incantations, now it was getting more blurred still, and it was seen as if you were superstitious, you were also Catholic, and therefore, if a monarch was Protestant, you would be persecuted and as well. People were reluctant to let go of these superstitious beliefs because it was a frightening time to be alive. There was a lot that happened that people couldn't understand. Sudden death, failure of harvests, terrible weather. And they didn't know that it wasn't a visitation from God or that it wasn't because they hadn't scratched marks in the eaves of their houses to ward off witches, and therefore they were being punished for it. So they kept kind of as a bit of a safety measure. Life was random, and folklore and superstition helped to explain some of that randomness.

[Emily Brifitts]

So it would be fair to say that this was a superstitious era then.

[Tracey Borman]

It was a very superstitious era, and that went right to the heart of the court. Elizabeth I herself had rooms in her palaces where she would practice alchemy. Now, this is a mystical art and it was believed you could turn base metals into gold and that through alchemy you could find the elixir of everlasting life. So it's magic, it's borderline witchcraft, but Elizabeth is practicing it on a regular basis. So it's not just, you know, the monarchs are setting the state belief and either eradicating or encouraging the more superstitious elements of that belief. They are meddling in superstition themselves. They are also encouraging this sort of mystical sense that the monarch themselves has special powers, so they go through things like touching for the king's evil, this ceremony that dates back to Edward the Confessor, where people who suffer from the skin disease scrofula go and they're touched by the monarch and they're cured. That carries on, really throughout the Tudor period, as does giving out cramp rings, this idea that these rings can have medicinal, healing properties. So, yeah, there's quite a lot of intertwining of the magical and the reformed.

[Emily Brifitts]

Could you give us some examples of some of these popular beliefs?

[Tracey Borman]

Yes. Well, children were frightened into obedience by their mothers or nursemaids with tales of evil witches and spirits and elves and fantastical creatures. One of the more odd beliefs was that, for example, it was considered unlucky if a hare ran in front of you. Today, it's a black cat. Tudor times, it was a hare. Now, there were other rather Weird and wonderful beliefs, and actually a lot of them centered around childbirth and the rituals that a laboring mother would go through. Because, of course, this was one of the main killers of women. Childbirth was very, very dangerous. So, of course, they're gonna cover all bases and go through all these rather superstitious things, like getting the skin of an ox and tying it around her thigh to ensure that both she and the child will survive. There's any number of things that class as folklore, superstitious beliefs, the word lunar and lunatic, they are closely linked because it was believed that if you stare at the moon, it could cause madness, lunacy. So it's interesting how folklore is still in our language today. I love that when we can trace the descent of a word to a very prevalent belief hundreds of years ago. As well as practicing alchemy, Elizabeth also owned a unicorn's horn that was believed to light up or glow if it came into contact with. With poison. So, yeah, that's quite an interesting little glimpse into the mindset of one of the most successful of the Tudors. But there were a whole number of others, and people everywhere believed in evil signs, that there were certain things that if they happened, you really had to watch your step. And one of them was getting a nosebleed. So that was thought to mean that an evil spirit had entered your body and was possessing you. Something terrible was about to happen. So don't have a nosebleed in the Tudor period.

[Emily Brifitts]

Okay, witchcraft. How prevalent was the belief in witchcraft and why?

[Tracey Borman]

Very prevalent indeed. And there is a development in this because witches had been around for centuries. They're mentioned in the Bible, but for most of that time, they were seen as a force for good. They were kind of white witches, if you like, and healers, wise women. And then they stopped being a force for good in the middle of the 14th century, when the church decided that witchcraft was synonymous with heresy and it should be punishable by death. And suddenly, then neighbors turned on neighbors practices, harmless practices that had been a force for good in local communities were suddenly seen as a force for evil. Exactly what was in that spell or herbal remedy? Surely that was what had caused that child to die or that crop to fail or the sudden storm that afflicted a local community. And so now witches were seen as evil and an evil that had to be rooted out from society. And witchcraft suddenly appears on the statute books with terrifying frequency in the Tudor period. And it was so easy to be accused because a number of different things, you had to kind of tick the boxes. What makes A witch? Well, female, yes. About 85% of those convicted were women poor. You're somehow on the periphery of your society. You own a cat. Yes, we might see that as a more modern view of a witch with a broomstick and a cat, but no, that was entirely as the Tudors saw it, that a witch would have a familiar, an animal, most often something like a cat or indeed a rat or something of that ilk, and that somehow they weren't popular with their local community. And therefore it's a self fulfilling prophecy because it's a great way of getting rid of somebody in your local village you don't like, you accuse them of witchcraft. There's an investigation which often includes things like ducking a witch in your local pond or stream. Quite often women die by this trial. If they rise to the top, they are guilty. If they sink, they were innocent. So you're damned if you do, you're damned if you don't. And so now it's one of the most terrifying dangers facing people at all levels of society, but particularly the poor, the afflicted and the women in Tudor England.

[Emily Brifitts]

How far did both religious and superstitious beliefs colour society's approach to life as a whole?

[Tracey Borman]

It was a gradual change, I think, and the tenacity of superstitious beliefs shows how cherished they were by people who weren't just prepared to give up what they'd believed all their lives. And similarly with religious beliefs as well. If you had grown up being taught that the religious world was one particular way, you can't just change overnight to suit the King or the Queen, whoever it may be. And so religious beliefs, they did gradually change and evolve. England was largely a Protestant country by the end of the Tudor period, but there had been an awful lot of turmoil and turbulence and bloodshed along the way.

[Emily Brifitts]

And as a final question to you, what can they reveal about the fears and concerns of these people?

[Tracey Borman]

They can tell us so much. They can tell us a lot about how much was not understood. These natural disasters that people assumed must be either God's vengeance or the work of witchcraft. This was before really the scientific revolution, the Age of Enlightenment, when people understood more about the world. The world was still a terrifying place in Tudor England and we're going to.

[Emily Brifitts]

Be exploring that a bit more next episode. Thank you very much, Tracey, it's been a pleasure. And that brings us to the end of this episode. Join us next time when we'll be circumnavigating the 16th century globe and exploring Tudor England's position within it.