Podcast Summary: In Our Time – "The Plague of Justinian"

Introduction and Historical Context

In the episode titled "The Plague of Justinian," broadcasted on January 21, 2021, BBC Radio 4's In Our Time delves into one of history's most devastating pandemics. Hosted by Melvyn Bragg, the discussion features three esteemed guests: John Halden, Professor Emeritus of Byzantine History and Hellenic Studies at Princeton University; Rebecca Fleming, Senior Lecturer in Classics and Fellow of Jesus College at the University of Cambridge; and Greg Wulf, Director of the Institute of Classical Studies at the University of London.

Overview of the Plague of Justinian

[01:12] Melvyn Bragg introduces the Plague of Justinian, which erupted in 541 AD during Emperor Justinian's reign. Historian Procopius, a contemporary chronicler, claimed the plague nearly annihilated humanity, affecting regions from Syria to Britain.

Description of the Disease and Symptoms

[04:30] Rebecca Fleming elaborates on the symptoms documented by contemporaries like Procopius and Evagrius Scholasticus. The plague was characterized by sudden, severe fever and buboes—swellings in the groin, armpits, and other body areas. Additional symptoms varied widely, including comas, delirium, and gastrointestinal issues, leading to mortality rates estimated around 50% or higher.

Primary Sources and Accounts: Procopius

[07:13] The conversation shifts to Procopius, who provided the most detailed accounts of the plague. John Halden explains that Procopius served as the personal secretary to General Belisarius and witnessed firsthand the plague's impact in Constantinople. While Procopius's earlier works offer credible details on symptoms and disease progression, his later "Secret History" presents an exaggerated and ideologically charged portrayal, particularly criticizing Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora.

Geographical Spread and Origins

[13:33] Greg Wulf discusses the challenges in tracing the plague's origins and spread. Procopius suggests it originated in Pelusium, Egypt, spreading eastward towards Jerusalem and westward to Alexandria. However, discrepancies in sources indicate alternative origins, possibly Central Asia, Abyssinia, or Yemen. Modern DNA analyses have detected Yersinia pestis, the bacterium responsible for bubonic plague, in remains from this period, supporting Procopius's accounts.

Societal Reactions and Public Perception

[05:43] Rebecca Fleming describes the widespread fear and panic among populations. John of Ephesus recounts personal anxieties about survival, reflecting the societal turmoil the plague induced. The unpredictable nature of the disease, affecting all societal sectors indiscriminately, further fueled despair and uncertainty.

Emperor Justinian's Response

[23:33] When discussing Justinian's response, John Halden notes that the emperor, despite contracting the plague himself, delegated its management to his official Theodorus. Theodorus organized mass burials by disposing of corpses into the city's fortifications, aiming to control the spread. Justinian's focus remained on rebuilding projects like the Hagia Sophia and military campaigns, with little evidence of broader public health measures beyond Constantinople.

Comparison with Other Historical Plagues

[12:29] Rebecca Fleming contrasts the Plague of Justinian with the earlier Antonine Plague of the 2nd century AD, noting differences in symptomatology and geographical spread. While both were devastating, the Antonine Plague exhibited symptoms inconsistent with bubonic plague, suggesting diseases like smallpox as potential causes.

Modern Scientific Understanding and DNA Evidence

[07:13] Advances in ancient DNA analysis have identified Yersinia pestis in remains from the Justinianic period, aligning with historical descriptions of bubonic plague. However, John Halden emphasizes that the bacterium's role in earlier plagues is less clear, and vectors like rat fleas may not have been the primary means of transmission during the Plague of Justinian.

Debates on the Plague's Impact on Byzantium

[32:02] The guests engage in a nuanced debate regarding the plague's long-term impact on the Byzantine Empire. Greg Wulf argues against attributing significant structural changes to the plague alone, pointing to concurrent factors like climate changes, volcanic eruptions, and persistent military conflicts with Persia. Rebecca Fleming concurs, suggesting that while the plague was a profound experience, it should be viewed within a broader context of societal shifts rather than as a singular transformative event.

Conclusions

[42:51] John Halden concludes that while ancient sources like Procopius provide valuable insights into the Plague of Justinian, the exaggerated mortality figures necessitate cautious interpretation. The interplay between textual evidence and emerging archaeological data continues to refine our understanding of the pandemic's true scope and effects.

Notable Quotes

• John Halden on Justinian's leadership and the city's reconstruction:
  "Constantinople comes to look more spectacular than ever before... That's where Hagen's Sophia comes from, but also to rebuild the palace, great courtyards." [03:35]

• Rebecca Fleming on the unpredictability of the plague's impact:
  "Everybody that it [plague] being unpredictable, that it affected all the sectors of the population, and then it didn't kind of follow the patterns that doctors would expect." [20:10]

• Greg Wulf on the plague's long-term significance:
  "The plague is like really bad weather and probably in the long run it's not that influential... it's very dramatic at the time, but I don't actually think in the long run it has huge sort of structural consequences." [32:17]

Final Thoughts

The episode underscores the complexity of historical pandemics, illustrating how modern scientific techniques like DNA analysis can challenge and enrich traditional historical narratives. "The Plague of Justinian" offers a comprehensive exploration of one of the ancient world's most catastrophic events, highlighting the interplay between historical accounts, archaeological findings, and contemporary scientific understanding.