In Our Time: History – Epic of Gilgamesh

BBC Radio 4 | November 3, 2016
Host: Melvyn Bragg
Guests: Andrew George, Francis Reynolds, Martin Worthington

Episode Overview

This episode of "In Our Time: History" centers on the Epic of Gilgamesh—widely considered the world’s first great work of literature, originating in Mesopotamia over 4,000 years ago. The panel explores the epic’s mysterious origins, narrative evolution, poetic form, key themes, archaeological rediscovery, and enduring human appeal. Discussion is richly informed by expert scholarship and punctuated by insights into the poem’s profound relevance across millennia.

Main Discussion Points and Insights

1. Origins and Evolution of the Epic (01:12–06:55)

• Written Form and Oral Roots:
  • Andrew George explains the earliest written fragments date to the early 2nd millennium BC, but the poem likely originated from oral tradition (“a poem that was told by minstrels, told by bards, sung perhaps orally before it became written down.” – Andrew George, 02:37).
• Single Author vs. Composite Origins:
  • The epic shows both hallmarks of a singular vision and deep embedding in a tapestry of older folklore (04:09).
  • A later Babylonian poet profoundly refocused the poem from heroic glory to a meditation on death and wisdom (05:00).
• Transmission and Recovery:
  • The narrative has been pieced together from many clay tablets found since the 1850s—most notably at Nineveh—with crucial early translation work by George Smith (05:48).
  • “We are essentially pioneers in assyriology, recovering the world’s oldest literatures... But our problem is that assyriology is not very well financed and always vulnerable to cuts.” – Andrew George, 06:55

2. Plot Summary and Major Episodes (07:30–12:38)

• Summary:
  • Gilgamesh, tyrannical king of Uruk, is counterbalanced by Enkidu, a wild man created by the gods to temper him.
  • Enkidu’s humanization through the temple prostitute Shamhat is central (“He is humanized through contact with the woman... unabashedly and unashamedly for seven days and seven nights.” – Melvyn Bragg/Francis Reynolds, 08:48).
  • After wrestling, Gilgamesh and Enkidu become close companions, embarking on heroic adventures: slaying the forest guardian Humbaba and Ishtar’s Bull of Heaven.
  • Enkidu’s death devastates Gilgamesh, prompting his quest for immortality by seeking the Flood survivor Utnapishti.
  • A failed test (“He immediately falls asleep for seven days... If he can’t sleep, then he can’t beat death.” – Melvyn Bragg, 11:48) reinforces mortality’s inevitability.
  • Gilgamesh returns to Uruk, wiser, accepting his limits, with the city’s great walls standing as his true legacy (12:36).

3. Form, Structure & Poetic Features (12:55–16:13)

• Poetic Nature:
  • Babylonian poetry is marked by formal lineation, syntactic completeness, repetition, and “nuggets of meaning” rather than rhyme or regular rhythm (12:55).
  • “Babylonian verses unfold... in a sort of poetic march of words with a great power... By any definition, we’re more than comfortable in calling it a poem.” – Martin Worthington, 15:18
• Repetition:
  • Essential to oral traditions and Mesopotamian literature, with entire passages and formulaic phrases recurring for emphasis and memory (16:13).
  • Possible performative function—repetition with differing vocal tones for nuance.

4. Character Analysis: Gilgamesh and Enkidu (17:21–21:50)

• Gilgamesh:
  • Begins as an unchecked, semi-divine tyrant; Enkidu’s arrival serves as both challenger and eventual counsellor (17:46).
  • The narrative is unusual for presenting such criticism of kingship, even within its own culture (18:33).
• Enkidu:
  • Complements Gilgamesh physically and psychologically; their bond is profound, described explicitly as involving ‘love’—potentially both emotional and sexual (19:49–21:10).
  • “It seems clear that as well as a very close friendship, there was also a sexual relationship between them.” – Francis Reynolds, 21:10
• Relationship Depth:
  • Interpreted via dreams and symbols (e.g., the axe), their partnership is depicted not only as adventure but as existential companionship (21:50–24:28).

5. Symbolism and Key Episodes (24:28–29:50)

• Cedar Forest and Humbaba:
  • The forest represents both a real and fantastical source of timber; the episode explores human environmental impact and moral responsibility (“My friend, we’ve created this wasteland. What shall we tell the gods when we get back home?” – paraphrased, 26:20).
• Ishtar and the Bull of Heaven:
  • Reversal of gendered courtship norms; Gilgamesh’s rejection of the goddess is fraught with danger, culminating in cosmic retribution and mythic extravagance (27:55).
  • The slaying of the Bull of Heaven and Enkidu’s defiant gesture toward Ishtar become etiological myths (our constellation Taurus, “one leg missing” – 29:50).

6. Death, Grief, and the Quest for Immortality (30:05–38:45)

• Enkidu’s Death:
  • Gilgamesh’s mourning is intense—marked by “the biggest funeral that’s ever been in Mesopotamia”—and unchecked burial rituals (21:10; 30:05).
  • His first use of Enkidu’s name after death is interpreted as shifting from companionship to memorialization (30:25).
• Journey in Search of Utnapishti:
  • The quest is both literal and symbolic; along the way, Gilgamesh himself adopts wild man traits, retracing Enkidu’s steps (31:52).
• The Flood Story:
  • Utnapishti’s account mirrors biblical Noah, but significantly predates the Genesis narrative; poignant passages of post-diluvian grief cited in Babylonian:

    “I knelt me down and sat there weeping, and over the sides of my cheeks the tears did flow.” – Andrew George, quoting Utnapishti, 33:00

• Mortality Lessons:
  • Immortality is denied; Gilgamesh learns to recognize humanity’s cyclical regeneration as the true form of endurance (34:00).

7. Revival, Reception, and Significance (35:24–41:54)

• Discovery Impact:
  • The 19th-century revelation that Mesopotamian literature contained a flood myth shocked and fascinated Victorian Europe, prompting controversial debates over biblical precedence (“...undressed and ran about the room... This may have just been in the British Museum” – Francis Reynolds, 35:42).
  • Scholarly consensus now holds the Babylonian version as the elder source (37:14).
• Legacy and Modern Appeal:
  • The epic resonates via its rich themes: heroism, hubris, love, friendship, death, and wisdom—paralleling later traditions (41:12).
  • “You’ve got everything. You've got sex, you’ve got the gods, you've got loss, you’ve got getting old, you've got youthful adventure, you've got a monster. What isn't to like?” – Martin Worthington, 41:54
  • “His career ends in failure... and we're all like that. We all have to come to terms with that mortality and that failure within us. And the trigger is often... the death of someone extremely close.” – Andrew George, 41:57

Notable Quotes & Memorable Moments

• On the Enduring Humanity of Gilgamesh:

  "He’s always getting it wrong, he’s always doing wrong. His career ends in failure. And we’re all like that. We all have to come to terms with that mortality and that failure within us." — Andrew George (41:57)

• On the Sensuality and Humanization of Enkidu:

  “He is humanized through contact with the woman, which takes place, as we hear, unabashedly and unashamedly for seven days and seven nights.” — Melvyn Bragg (08:48)

• On the Shock of the Flood Tablet Discovery:

  “...the shock on him was extraordinary. We have this account about how he was in the British Museum, undressed and ran about the room.” — Francis Reynolds (35:42)

• On the Richness of the Epic:

  “Assyriology is an expanding field, which is tremendous. If you’re outside Assyriology, then Gilgamesh has something for everyone... What isn’t to like?” — Martin Worthington (41:18)

Key Segment Timestamps

• Origins and First Writing: 02:34–06:55
• Plot Overview: 07:34–12:38
• Form and Poetic Devices: 12:55–17:04
• Gilgamesh & Enkidu’s Relationship: 17:21–24:28
• Cedar Forest & Environmental Themes: 24:28–26:51
• Ishtar’s Proposal & Bull of Heaven: 27:55–29:50
• Death, Grief, & Immortality: 30:05–38:45
• 19th-century Rediscovery & Debate with the Bible: 35:24–37:43
• Modern Resonance & Human Relevance: 41:12–41:57

Bonus Material & Deeper Insights

(43:04–47:55, post-main episode)

• Elasticity of Time:
  • The poem’s timeline is ambiguous, reflecting different cultural attitudes toward aging and chronology (43:04).
• Immortality Examined:
  • The epic poses profound questions—would living forever be desirable, or would it be a kind of hell? Utnapishti’s unending, companionless life is depicted as solitary and bleak (43:53).
• Polytheism and Divine Dynamics:
  • The gods’ interplay reveals cultural attitudes about nature and cosmic authority, contrasting with biblical traditions in which humanity has dominion. Here, humans can upset the world’s balance, triggering disaster as an ecological metaphor (45:22–47:55).

Conclusion

The episode provides a compelling and accessible examination of the Epic of Gilgamesh, exploring its literary artistry, narrative complexity, and philosophical depth. By engaging with themes of power, mortality, environment, and human connection, it underscores why this ancient poem remains a foundational and remarkably relatable text in the story of civilization.

Further Reading:
A list of suggested readings related to the Epic and Mesopotamian literature is available on the In Our Time website.

(Episode originally aired on BBC Radio 4, November 3, 2016)