Podcast Summary: "Former des élites, des cas d’écoles : La formation en révolution ! Histoire de l'ingénieuse Polytechnique"

Le Cours de l’histoire – France Culture
Host: Xavier Mauduit
Guests: Hervé Joly (Directeur de recherche, CNRS), Bruno Belhoste (Professeur émérite, Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne)
Date: 17 February 2026

Episode Overview

This episode explores the storied history of l’École Polytechnique, France’s “ingénieuse” engine of elite training. Tracing its origins from pre-Revolutionary establishments to its foundational role during and after the French Revolution, the discussion investigates how Polytechnique’s blend of rigorous scientific training, military tradition, and republican spirit shaped the formation of France’s technocratic elite. The guests unpack myths and paradoxes—military yet civil, elite yet meritocratic—and examine the school’s adaptations (and resistance to change) through political upheavals, societal transformations, and into the modern era.

1. Historical Foundations and Revolutionary Context

[00:07–04:42]

• Origins: Polytechnique, officially founded in 1794, is presented as both a child of the Revolution and heir to institutions of the Ancien Régime like l’école des Ponts et Chaussées (1716) and l’école des Mines (1783).
• Military & Civil Duality: While its tutelage shifted over time, Polytechnique has long maintained an ambiguous identity—originally civilian, later under the Ministry of Defence (since 1830, with exceptions under Vichy).
  • Hervé Joly: “L’école polytechnique est une école militaire très particulière, puisqu’elle forme aujourd’hui très peu de militaires… des ingénieurs plutôt que des officiers classiques.” [01:34]
• Why the Military Tutelage?
  • Hervé Joly: “Le ministère de la Défense n’est pas le ministère le plus pauvre… c’est plus intéressant d’être l’école de prestige du ministère de la Défense que d’être une école parmi d’autres de l’enseignement supérieur.” [02:30]

2. The Legacy of Elitism, Science, and Meritocracy

[04:42–08:34]

• Recruitment by Merit: The Revolution upended noble privilege, introducing competitive exams (“le concours”), still a foundation of Polytechnique.
  • Bruno Belhoste: “Pour moi, la racine de l’école polytechnique, c’est quand même le concours. Et ça reste toujours le concours.” [05:05]
• Noblesse and Access: Though earlier schools drew mainly from elites, some diversity existed, especially in civil engineering paths.
• Role of Scientific Visionaries: Gaspard Monge, a self-made mathematician, symbolizes the democratic and scientific spirit of the school.
  • Narrator: “Monge personnifia l’esprit démocratique qui fut toujours celui de l’école… il chercha toujours à les faire servir à l’intérêt, voire au salut de la patrie.” [08:34–09:57]

3. Structure & Educational Project

[10:21–17:29]

• Generalist Ambition: Monge intended Polytechnique to deliver broad, high-level scientific training—anchored in mathematics but oriented towards real applications.
  • Bruno Belhoste: “Un enseignement très large… qui associait les théories mathématiques les plus avancées… et un enseignement tourné vers les applications.” [11:48]
• “Ecole Préparatoire”: Polytechnique is a stepping-stone to elite “corps” (mines, ponts et chaussées, artillery, genius), with a harsh sorting at both entry and exit—the infamous ranking (“la botte”).
  • Hervé Joly: “Le classement de sortie... permet d’entrer essentiellement au corps des mines et au corps des ponts et chaussées et d’éviter ce qui apparait à beaucoup... aller dans l’artillerie ou le génie.” [13:16–14:24]
• Shift to Military Identity: Initially civilian (“École centrale des travaux publics”), it acquired military regimen under Napoleon in 1805.

4. Access, Preparation, and the Famous “X”

[16:04–21:01]

• Concours and Preparation: The competition’s rigor led to the rise of preparatory classes (“mathématiques spéciales,” or “taupe”).
• The Symbol “X”: Shorthand for Polytechnique, the “X” stems from the dominance of mathematics; the precise historical origin is debated but reflects a culture rich in traditions, jargon, and symbols.
  • Hervé Joly: “C’est une référence aux compétences mathématiques des élèves.” [19:40]
• Humanities vs. Hard Sciences: Despite its scientific reputation, Polytechnique prized humanities—offering bonifications in the concours for literary bacs well into the 19th century.

5. Paradoxes: Military School, Civilian Aims

[22:34–28:50]

• Institutional Paradox: Most students have historically preferred civil careers despite military trappings. Under Napoleon, war compelled more into the military, but aspirations leaned towards civil “corps.”
  • Bruno Belhoste: “L’école polytechnique forment surtout des militaires, mais en fait les élèves n’ont pas tellement envie d’y aller.” [23:12]
• Student Life & Activism: Polytechniciens played active roles in 19th-century revolutions (notably 1830); political engagement waned afterwards, constrained by their military status.

6. Stability and Resistance to Change

[32:33–36:15]

• Transcending Regimes: Polytechnique survived and adapted through monarchies, republics, and empires, showing remarkable institutional continuity.
  • Bruno Belhoste: “Ça bouge pas. C’est quand même ça qui est absolument frappant. C’est l’immobilisme de cette institution.” [33:32]
• Reforms after 1968: Only in the wake of “Mai 68” did major reforms occur, including the end of strict casernement and more freedom in course choices.
  • Hervé Joly: “L’école a été quand même assez réformée pour tenir compte de ces acquis de mai 68… Aujourd’hui, les enseignements ont beaucoup évolué.” [34:24]

7. Women, Access, and Social Origins

[36:15–38:10]

• Admitting Women: Women were only admitted after a 1970 law, more by national and military pressure than school initiative.
  • Hervé Joly: “L’école n’était pas demandeuse… c’est l’évolution de l’armée qui amène l’arrivée des femmes à l’école polytechnique.” [38:10]
• First Major: Anne Chopinet became the first “majore” of her class the year women were admitted, an iconic (and accidental) breakthrough.

8. Technocracy, Networks, and Social Mobility

[38:10–49:41]

• Technocracy and Recruitment: Polytechnique builds scientifically literate elites who dominate France’s state and corporate infrastructures, reinforcing networks and prestige.
  • Bruno Belhoste: “C’est un filtre… à tous les niveaux… Et à l’intérieur, c’est aussi un filtre pour classer, parce qu’il y a le fameux classement de sortie.” [39:32]
• Limited Social Diversification: Elite reproduction remains high; as of 2025, only 11% of admitted students are from financially disadvantaged backgrounds, and only 18% are women.
  • Hervé Joly: “On a plutôt l’impression sur ce plan que la situation n’a pas forcément évolué favorablement.” [49:41]

9. Culture, Discipline, and the Polytechnicien Identity

[49:41–54:31]

• Life in the Caserne: Student life was highly regulated, with discipline, infrequent permissions, and playful insubordination—an environment both strict and rich in camaraderie and ritual.
• Generalist Training: The education is deeply generalist—a point of pride and persistent ambiguity. Polytechniciens are highly valued for command and leadership, less so for “hands-on” engineering.
  • Hervé Joly: “Les polytechniciens sont très bons pour les postes de commandement. Mais…si vous voulez avoir des ingénieurs de terrain, vous n’allez pas recruter des polytechniciens.” [53:41]

10. International Influence and Limits

[55:33–57:18]

• French Model, Limited Export: While Polytechnique inspired institutions abroad (notably in Germany), its internationalization is recent and moderate. Today, only about a quarter of admissions are foreign, mostly from a handful of countries.
  • Hervé Joly: “L’école polytechnique n’a pas un recrutement international massif... c’est une école qui est beaucoup plus petite, qui est beaucoup moins visible.” [46:24]
• Challenges Abroad: The "generalist" concept of Polytechnique is not easily understood or prized in places like Germany, which prefer technical specialization.

11. Memorable Quotes & Moments

• “L’école polytechnique est une vache sacrée… cet institution porte l’histoire de France.”
  — Bruno Belhoste [03:22]
• “Monge personnifia l’esprit démocratique…” [Narrator, 08:34]
• “Sortir dans la botte… éviter ce qui apparaît à beaucoup d’élèves comme une catastrophe, aller dans l’artillerie ou le génie. Ce qui est paradoxal pour une école militaire.”
  — Hervé Joly [13:16]
• “L’école polytechnique n’a plus d’avenir. J’y avais complètement fou. (…) l’école polytechnique existe toujours, devra sans doute exister encore.”
  — Bruno Belhoste [33:32]

12. Timestamps for Key Segments

| Timestamp | Topic/Quote | Speaker | |-----------|-------------------|--------| | 01:34 | Military tutelage and status | Hervé Joly | | 05:05 | The enduring centrality of the concours | Bruno Belhoste | | 08:34 | Gaspard Monge and the democratic spirit | Narrator | | 13:16 | Sorting and ambition at Polytechnique | Hervé Joly | | 19:40 | The mystery and symbolism of “l’X” | Hervé Joly | | 23:12 | The paradox: military school, civilian aims | Bruno Belhoste | | 33:32 | Institutional stability and immobility | Bruno Belhoste | | 34:24 | Impact of ‘68 and curricular reforms | Hervé Joly | | 38:10 | Admission of women and Anne Chopinet | Hervé Joly | | 49:41 | Social origins and difficulties in diversification | Hervé Joly | | 53:41 | Generalist formation and career limitations | Hervé Joly | | 46:24 | Internationalization and visibility | Hervé Joly |

13. Overall Tone and Takeaways

• The episode is a lively, informed journey through French educational history’s most prestigious paradox—a “military” school that forms mostly civilian elites, a “technocratic” institution born from revolutionary egalitarianism but still marked by social closure.
• Both hosts and guests combine scholarly depth with humor and self-awareness, often poking fun at Polytechnique’s rigidities and myths while never doubting its centrality in the French collective imagination.

Conclusion:
"Former des élites, des cas d’écoles : La formation en révolution ! Histoire de l'ingénieuse Polytechnique" paints Polytechnique as both a symbol and a reality—France’s paradoxical bridge between old regime elitism and revolutionary meritocracy; at once stable and in need of change, proud and insular, modern in ambition but traditional in structure. Polytechnique remains, above all, a defining “cours de l’histoire” for how a nation constructs its elite.

For further listening or reading, the episode recommends Hervé Joly’s and Bruno Belhoste’s books for deeper dives into Polytechnique’s past and present.