Literature and History, Episode 116: The Life of Muhammad, Part 3: Conquest (Released September 15, 2025)

Host: Doug Metzger

Overview of Episode’s Theme

In this nearly two-hour installment of Literature and History, Doug Metzger provides an in-depth, meticulously sourced narrative of the last five years of Muhammad’s life (627–632 CE). Metzger charts Muhammad’s remarkable transformation from a besieged minority leader to the unifier of Arabia—covering pivotal events like the Treaty of Hudaybiyya, the conquest of Khaybar, Muhammad’s ultimate return to Mecca, the Battle of Hunayn, and the Prophet’s death. The episode delves into the interplay between biography, legend, and the complex textual tradition of early Islam. Metzger aims for a centrist, culturally aware account that neither shies away from miracle stories nor loses sight of Muhammad’s humanity.

Key Discussion Points & Insights

1. Source Criticism and the Problem of Biography

• Metzger frames the episode by discussing the vast array of sources, from medieval biographies to modern academic works, and stresses the challenges of reconstructing Muhammad’s life from sometimes hagiographic and sometimes skeptical materials.

  “Although the source materials we have on Muhammad are complex, and though they were set down centuries after he lived, they demonstrate two overarching facts… Muhammad was a person of considerable intelligence and will, and he saw the tribal power blocks into which Arabia had been organized… and imagined a different future for the peninsula and for the world.” (02:03)

2. The Aftermath of the Battle of the Trench: The Dream of the Pilgrimage

(04:45–14:00)

• After surviving the siege of Medina, Muhammad dreams of peacefully entering Mecca during pilgrimage, sparking a bold plan to do just that despite the risks.
• He turns away suggestions for armed preparation, demonstrating faith in sacred customs.

The Treaty of Hudaybiyya

• Despite tense negotiations and a controversial return home, the treaty is a turning point, recognizing the Muslims as a legitimate regional power. Metzger notes the strategic concessions and loopholes that Muhammad and the early believers leveraged in the aftermath, allowing for a doubling of the community’s size in two years.

  “The real victory after the peace treaty of 628 was that the communities of Yethrib and Mecca could meet and intermingle more freely.” (14:41)

3. Early Diplomacy and Conversions Beyond Arabia

(21:30–26:30)

• Muhammad’s diplomatic reach extends: marriage alliances, letters to rulers, and vision/prophecy stories (mixing historical fact and legendary narrative).
• Metzger is cautious about the chronology:

  “This story is told very briskly… its chronology is suspicious and the Sasanian Empire was in the midst of utter chaos in 628. So it seems doubtful that Khosrow II… would have time to parley with the modestly sized new theocratic state in Medina.” (25:09)

4. Miraculous Narratives: The Jewish Sorcerer of Medina

(27:00–30:30)

• Tells of the sorcerer Labid casting a spell on Muhammad, and the Prophet’s subsequent spiritual healing through Qur’anic recitation (Surahs al-Falaq and an-Naas).
• Metzger notes the dual function: these stories are integral Islamic tradition and valuable as cultural history, regardless of their factuality.

5. The Conquest of Khaybar and the Transformation of the Muslim Polity

(30:31–46:00)

• Khaybar, a fortified Jewish oasis, becomes the site of a key campaign. Strategic alliances and tactical ingenuity allow Muhammad to win.

• Metzger stresses divisions among inhabitants and realpolitik in Muhammad’s arrangements with defeated populations:

  “The Jewish tribespeople… brokered agreements… asking if they might remain on their land, paying him half of their income as a tax. Muhammad agreed with the stipulation that he could banish them at any time.” (43:12)

• The episode also unpacks the story of Safiyyah, a Jewish captive who becomes Muhammad’s wife, and household dynamics among Muhammad’s wives—offering both empathy and critical distance.

6. The Hudaybiyya Pilgrimage and Meccan Realignment

(55:00–1:05:00)

• The following year, Muhammad and the Muslims are allowed to enter Mecca for pilgrimage.

• The symbolic power of Bilal’s call to prayer from atop the Kaaba is emphasized. The psychological and social impact on Meccan society and its leadership is explored:

  “Muhammad, the Quraysh leaders understood, had enjoyed a significant victory even as an unarmed pilgrim proclaiming Islam from the roof of the Kaaba itself.” (1:01:41)

• Noteworthy conversions and political marriages further integrate Muhammad with the Meccan elite.

7. The Battle of Mu’tah: Islam's First Clash with Byzantium

(1:10:00–1:16:40)

• Details the Muslims’ first direct military confrontation with Byzantine and Ghassanid forces.

• Metzger is skeptical of numeric claims (100,000 enemies versus 3,000 Muslims), but highlights the significance:

  “It was the first time that Muslim armies had faced off on the battlefield against one of their northern imperial neighbors.” (1:13:20)

• Khalid ibn al-Walid’s heroism is noted—a foreshadowing of his future military prowess.

8. The Conquest of Mecca

(1:18:00–1:30:00)

• The breaking of the truce prompts Muhammad’s march on Mecca—a masterclass in intimidation, diplomacy, and restraint; the city falls with little bloodshed.
• Famous scene:

  “Whenever the Prophet passed one of the idols, he pointed at it with the staff in his hand, saying ‘truth came and throttled the false. Indeed, the false are destroyed, destroyed,’ and the idol fell to the ground…” (1:27:10)

• Muhammad grants clemency to Meccans; former enemies convert—including his old nemesis Abu Sufyan.

9. The Battle of Hunayn and Integration of Arabia

(1:31:00–1:40:00)

• Despite an initial rout by a confederation of tribes, the Muslims regroup and win, acquiring substantial spoils.

• Metzger highlights Muhammad’s political generosity:

  “Muhammad’s gift giving after the battle of Hunayn… endeared some important power players from Mecca to him.” (1:39:10)

• He mollifies his long-term Medinan supporters with a memorable retort:

  “Are you disturbed in mind because of the good things of this life by which I win over a people that they may become Muslims while I entrust you to your Islam?” (1:40:22)

10. Administration, Taxation, and Religious Diversity

(1:47:00–1:52:00)

• Metzger describes the early Islamic fiscal system: Muslims pay zakat, Jews and Christians pay additional jizya for security.
• He notes the Quran’s nuanced acknowledgment of religious plurality:

  “We have assigned a law and a path to each of you… So race to do good, you will all return to God and He will make clear to you the matters you differed about.” (1:50:52, quoting the Quran)

11. The Farewell Pilgrimage and Muhammad’s Death

(1:56:00–2:07:00)

• The “Farewell Sermon” at Mount Arafat establishes key rites and ethical precepts for the growing community.

  Stresses the importance of brotherhood, ethical treatment of women, and devotion to the Quran as guide.

• Muhammad falls ill, is lovingly cared for by his wives, especially Aisha. The account of his final days is moving and detailed.

Memorable Deathbed Moments:

“The Apostle of Allah...looked at his hand in a way that I knew he wanted [the siwak, a toothbrush]... I chewed it till I softened it. Then I gave it to him. He cleansed his teeth much more than he used to do before.” – Aisha, via Ibn Sa’d (2:05:10)

12. The Succession Crisis and Sunni-Shia Split

(2:08:00–2:13:00)

• Abu Bakr is chosen as the first caliph; Ali and his faction are initially reluctant.
• Metzger offers a careful, evenhanded explanation of the Sunni/Shia divide, noting that “their basic theological difference is as Sunnis, while they revere Ali, believe that Abu Bakr was the rightful first Caliph… Shias, on the other hand, believe that Ali should have been made caliph.” (2:10:30)

13. Muhammad’s Legacy: Humanity and the Problem of Hagiography

(2:15:00–2:26:00)

• Metzger reflects on Muhammad’s multifaceted character—part inspired leader, part pragmatic manager, deeply human.

• Contrasts tradition, revisionist histories, and hagiographies.

  “In his final moments, he asks for a toothbrush, an anecdote so specific and so sad and so human that it’s hard to believe that anyone would have made it up.” (2:23:56)

• The centrality of textual tradition is underscored—most of what is “known” about Muhammad is story, collected, edited, passed down.

  “Muhammad’s story lies in tens of millions of lines of text. When someone says that Muhammad said something or did something, what they mean most of the time is that this or that Abbasid-period writer who is citing this hadith… said that Muhammad said or did something. That is not an easy thing to explain, but it’s the truth.” (2:22:00)

14. Closing Reflections on Historiography and Ordinary Life

(2:27:00–end)

• Metzger shares his intentions as a scholar-storyteller:

  “All I wanted to do was tell a very basic centrist story about who Muhammad was and what he did. I wanted to tell you the standard history of Islam’s inception, such as you might hear it growing up in many different places in the world…” (2:28:30)

• Expresses preference for centering everyday Muslim life rather than focusing solely on either polemic or sanctity. The closing image he would use for a documentary about Muhammad:

  “…a regular Muslim woman checking her texts and then going to work or to meet up with family and friends… That would be the closing shot of my documentary on the Prophet Muhammad—…an utterly ordinary moment of life from the contemporary Islamic world, 1400 years and one continent away from the place and time Muhammad lived.” (2:30:40)

Notable Quotes & Memorable Moments

• On the Treaty of Hudaybiyya:

  “The agreement meant that the Quraysh were treating the Muslims as an equal regional power.” (13:55)

• On Muhammad’s leadership style:

  “In a tribal world where trust and personal expertise were more important than institutions and bureaucracies, Muhammad must have had incredible instincts for deciding whom to trust and whom to hold at arm’s length…” (2:19:15)

• On the problem of historical sources:

  “When someone says that Muhammad said something or did something, what they mean most of the time is that this or that Abbasid-period writer… said that Muhammad said or did something. That is not an easy thing to explain, but it’s the truth.” (2:22:00)

• On the human Muhammad:

  “In his final moments, he asks for a toothbrush, an anecdote so specific and so sad and so human that it’s hard to believe that anyone would have made it up.” (2:23:56)

• Aisha on Muhammad's character:

  “His character was the Quran.” (2:36:10)

• Abu Bakr to the mourning crowd:

  “‘Whoever amongst you worshipped Muhammad, then Muhammad is dead. But whoever worshipped Allah, Allah is alive and will never die.’” (2:08:50)

Timestamps for Important Segments

| Segment | Time | |-----------------------------------------------------|-------------| | Introduction and Source Criticism | 00:02–04:45 | | Treaty of Hudaybiyya | 04:45–14:00 | | Diplomacy with Ethiopia & Persia | 21:30–26:30 | | Labid the Sorcerer | 27:00–30:30 | | Conquest of Khaybar | 30:31–46:00 | | The Hudaybiyya Pilgrimage | 55:00–1:05:00| | Battle of Mutah (with Byzantium) | 1:10:00–1:16:40| | Conquest of Mecca | 1:18:00–1:30:00| | Battle of Hunayn | 1:31:00–1:40:00| | Fiscal System and Religious Diversity | 1:47:00–1:52:00| | The Farewell Pilgrimage and Muhammad’s Death | 1:56:00–2:08:00| | Succession Crisis and Sunni/Shia Split | 2:08:00–2:13:00| | Reflecting on Biography and Modern Relevance | 2:15:00–end |

Tone & Approach

Metzger’s narration is measured, deeply sourced, and respectful, blending scholarly caution (“read into and second guess the primary texts”) with narrative flair. There’s no flippancy or speculation beyond what the tradition bears, but also no avoidance of difficult or miraculous stories—he presents them as part of the cultural and literary tapestry.

Next in the Series

Metzger previews an intensive multi-part series on the Quran, promising deep dives into its structure, jurisprudence, and complex relationship with other Near Eastern traditions.

For Listeners Seeking More

• Transcript and footnotes available in the app
• Quiz for review
• Recommended reading: Biographical works of Ibn Isaq, At-Tabari, Ibn Sa’d, and works on early Islamic history and the Quran for those wishing to explore the traditions and their divergent critical interpretations.

This episode is essential listening for anyone seeking to understand Muhammad’s historical journey, his cultural impact, and the roots of the world’s second-largest religion—in Metzger’s words, examined “as a story, as a web of traditions, as a legacy both monumental and lived.”