Episode Overview

Title: Zhang Shizhao: a forgotten theorist of social change
Podcast Series: LSE Public Lectures and Events
Date: December 9, 2013
Presenter: Leichenko
Host/Chair: Nick Bunin

Theme:
This episode explores the life, thought, and enduring significance of Zhang Shizhao—an often overlooked, yet pivotal, Chinese political theorist of the early 20th century. The discussion situates Zhang’s ideas within the intellectual ferment of his time, focusing on his theory of “accommodation” and its challenge to polarized, revolutionary narratives of China and politics more broadly. Leichenko argues for Zhang’s relevance in both historical and contemporary contexts of social change and democratic theory, engaging questions of pluralism, selfhood, and the ongoing conversation between Chinese and Western political thought.

Key Discussion Points & Insights

1. Zhang Shizhao’s Intellectual Context and Influence

• Complexity Beyond Labels: Zhang is typically mischaracterized as moving from radical to conservative, but he actually occupies a liminal space—radical, conservative, traditionalist and modernizer; fiercely independent and open to both Chinese and Western influences.
  • "He was a radical, he was a conservative, he was a traditionalist and modernizer... Zhang is interesting for us because of some European influence... but also partly because he was a radical, he was a conservative, he was a traditionalist and modernizer." (Nick Bunin, 00:21)
• Network and Connections: Close to influential figures like Mao Zedong, Liang Shuming, Chen Duxiu, and Hu Shi, he both collaborated with and opposed various ideological camps.
• Relative Obscurity but Contemporary Impact: While largely forgotten today, Zhang was once recognized as one of the greatest Chinese political thinkers, even equated with Confucius in importance by his contemporaries.
  • "He spends as much time talking about Zhang Shizhao in this book as he does about Confucius, which really says something about Zhang's contemporary influence." (Leichenko, 05:50)

2. Motivation and Methodological Framing

• Comparative Political Theory: Leichenko situates his work within the growing field of comparative political theory, arguing for learning from non-Western thought not just to “reflect” but to generate new questions. Attempts to move beyond Eurocentric frameworks:
  • "Rather than looking for new answers to shared questions, as many in the field do, I felt it was at least equally important to think about what kinds of new questions might emerge from encounter with non Western or historically marginalized forms of thought." (Leichenko, 09:57)
• “Chinese Thought as Global Theory”: Rather than timeless essentialism, Leichenko advocates viewing Chinese thought as an ongoing conversation capable of contributing to global challenges.

3. Life and Major Phases of Zhang Shizhao

• From Radical to Moderate Advocacy: Initially engaged in revolutionary activity (even forming assassination squads against the Qing), Zhang shifted toward educational reform and constitutional, parliamentary governance after studying in Edinburgh and working with Sun Yat-sen.
• Shift to Accommodation: Alarmed by the destructive potential of wholesale Westernization and radicalism post-1919, Zhang advocated "appreciating difference," rural reconstruction, and moderate reform—continually risking censure for supporting pluralist, dialogical approaches over radical conformity.

4. Core Political Theory: “Accommodation” and Difference

• Tolerance at the Heart of Polity: Zhang’s foundational idea is that sustainable government and social order are rooted in tolerance, not homogenization.
  • "Founding a government has a foundation. Wherein lies this foundation? I say it lies in having tolerance, what is called having tolerance. It means not favoring the same and not hating the different." (Leichenko quoting Zhang, 20:55)
• Accommodation as a Dynamic Process: More than Western toleration, accommodation for Zhang is “born of mutual agonism and developed through mutual concessions,” aimed at productive engagement, not mere coexistence.
  • "Accommodation ... acts to foster good relationships between persons despite their political differences." (Leichenko, 22:40)
• Linking Self-Cultivation to Civic Transformation: Drawing on Neo-Confucianism, Zhang insists openness and political change begin internally—with self-awareness and “having a self” (wo).
  • "Zhang claims ... if each person exerts his utmost effort, then the public political goals of nation building can be accomplished." (Leichenko, 24:00)
• Dissent and Idiosyncrasy: Zhang positively valued dissent and personal idiosyncrasy, seeing them as necessary for invigorating public life and building a robust, pluralistic polity.

5. Political Practice and Historical Outcomes

• Bridging Elitist and Mass Politics: Zhang worked to disaggregate the elite Confucian concept of rule, encouraging all citizens to value their unique talents and contribute to polity-building, regardless of educational pedigree or class.
• Serving under Warlords: Seen as “reactionary” for his turn to government service during the warlord era, but justified this as a necessary step to preserve order in chaos, not opportunism.

6. Relevance to Current Politics and Global Theory

• Contrast with “Harmonious Society”: Zhang’s “accommodation” directly counters the Chinese state's (and some stereotypes of East Asian political culture) emphasis on conformity and the absence of difference.
• Lessons for Democracy-Building: His focus on initiating self-conscious civic engagement is relevant in societies lacking democratic traditions or where passive citizenship persists.
  • "No institutional structure is going to make people want to be democratic citizens. So he was thinking very carefully about how ... individuals influence other individuals." (Leichenko, 66:36)
• Comparisons with Western Theory: Zhang’s theories resonate with contemporary Euro-American discussions on pluralism (e.g. Connolly, Mouffe) but differ in that they seek to build community where none yet exists, rather than upsetting a hegemonic or settled order.

Notable Quotes & Memorable Moments

On Theory and the West

• "As has been frequently noted in the modern era, theory has traveled almost exclusively in one direction from European and American intellectual discourse ... The challenge for contemporary scholarship which I attempt to confront in my work on Zhang Shizhao ... is thus how to reverse this historical directional arrow." (Leichenko, 13:33)

On Government Foundations and Tolerance

• "Wherein lies this foundation? I say it lies in having tolerance ... It means not favoring the same and not hating the different." (Zhang Shizhao, as quoted by Leichenko, 20:55)

On Civic Agency

• “If all of those 33,999 people did the same thing you do and none get involved, then this means the entire nation has lost itself, has lost its wa, its me.” (Zhang Shizhao, quoted by Leichenko, 27:45)

On Self-Cultivation

• "This talent begins from the heart. It issues forth in words, finds expression in important matters, and corrects what it cannot change; sages cannot give it to other people, and fathers cannot snatch it away from their sons. Therefore, in seeing what nature has given me, it is certainly not coincidental. Now the quote from Xu Sheng has ended, Zhang interjects, ‘this truly can be called having a self.'" (34:15)

On “Harmonious Society” vs. Accommodation

• "The idea of harmony, in direct contrast to Zhang's concept of accommodation, I argue, presumes the absence of difference both individually and collectively." (Leichenko, 38:06)

On the Limits of Institutionalism

• "No institutional structure is going to make people want to be democratic citizens. So he was thinking very carefully about how ... individuals influence other individuals. They provide models for other individuals ... And from these very small micro political processes, they end up having wider and wider political effects." (Leichenko, 66:36)

Audience Q&A Highlights

Q: How would Zhang respond to the creative compromise of “socialism with Chinese characteristics” today?
A: He’d likely appreciate the conceptual creativity but would be concerned with the lack of spaces for public debate and criticism—which for him was paramount. (44:00)

Q: Was Zhang influenced by Daoism’s small government/laisser-faire elements?
A: Zhang’s classical education included both Confucianism and Daoism, but his surviving writings draw more on Confucian than Daoist text; he made limited direct references to Daoism specifically. (44:56)

Q: Did Zhang try to bridge Western liberalism and Marxism?
A: During Zhang’s formative years, Marxism had little influence in China; he was more concerned with parliamentarism and pluralism than with emerging class-based theories. (46:46)

Q: How did Zhang manage the tension between Confucian elitism and later class-based radicalism?
A: He intentionally broadened the definition of political participation to include everybody’s unique contribution (not just elite voices), and considered rural reconstruction as a “third way” alongside capitalism and communism, though it failed to gain traction. (50:24–53:51)

Q: What about his relevance today?
A: The rediscovery of Zhang in the 1990s and 2000s stemmed from Chinese intellectuals’ search for alternatives to state-domination and revolutionary ideology. His accommodation remains significant for pluralism and incremental, bottom-up change in both China and global contexts. (63:31–66:36)

Q: Was Zhang’s focus excessively individual and lacking in collective action?
A: He believed individual action—especially as an example to others—could create social cascades and tipping points. Movements start with changes in self and small circles, gradually influencing broader change. (78:29)

Timestamps for Key Segments

| Timestamp | Topic/Quote | |------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 00:21 | Nick Bunin introduces Zhang as both radical and conservative, bridging Chinese and Western thought. | | 04:00 | Leichenko on Zhang’s contemporaries and relative obscurity today. | | 09:57 | Motivation: Comparative political theory and the “global” value of Chinese thought. | | 13:33 | On reversing the traditional flow of theory from West to East. | | 20:55 | Zhang on tolerance as the foundation of government. | | 24:00 | The link between self-effort and public political ends. | | 27:45 | Zhang’s passage on the dangers of passivity; everyone must act. | | 34:15 | “This truly can be called having a self”—the meaning of selfhood in politics. | | 44:00 | On Zhang and “socialism with Chinese characteristics.” | | 50:24–53:51| Zhang bridging elitism and mass participation. | | 66:36 | Contemporary relevance — why individual action and self-cultivation still matter. | | 78:29 | On micro-political change and the start of collective action. |

Final Takeaways & Global Significance

• Pluralism without Precedent: Zhang’s theory of “accommodation” provides a blueprint for building political community and practicing democracy in contexts where uniformity dominates or traditions of pluralism are weak.
• From Self to Society: The transformation of political culture, for Zhang, begins with self-awareness and individual agency, cascading outward through personal example and incremental activism.
• A Useful Answer to Modern Questions: Since democracy is often treated as a settled fact in Western theory but a live problem in much of the world, Zhang’s bottom-up, difference-based approach offers valuable insights for both emerging and “advanced” societies struggling with stasis and disengagement.
• Rediscovery and Relevance: As China—and the world—continues to debate the value and method of pluralism, Zhang’s thought provides a unique, non-teleological, and dialogical alternative to both authoritarian state models and Western liberal hegemony.

Episode Summary by Topic

• Zhang’s life, context, and intellectual impact [00:21–10:00]
• The problem of Eurocentrism and comparative political theory [10:00–18:00]
• Zhang’s political actions, moderation, and response to radicalism [18:00–22:00]
• Core concepts: tolerance, accommodation, and selfhood [22:00–37:00]
• How difference is valued and enacted [37:00–44:00]
• Modern implications and Chinese rediscovery [63:00–67:00]
• Individual versus collective action and the mechanics of social change [78:00–81:00]

For further reading, Leichenko’s monograph "Making the Political: Founding and Action in the Political Theory of Zhang Shizhao" (Cambridge University Press) is recommended, albeit at a steep price!