Mayu Fujikawa, "Envisioning Diplomacy: Japanese Ambassadors in Early Modern Europe" (Pennsylvania State UP, 2025)

Summary

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Podcast Summary

Podcast: New Books Network
Episode: Mayu Fujikawa, "Envisioning Diplomacy: Japanese Ambassadors in Early Modern Europe" (Pennsylvania State UP, 2025)
Host: Dr. Miranda Melcher
Guest: Dr. Mayu Fujikawa
Date: December 19, 2025

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Episode Overview

This episode features Dr. Mayu Fujikawa discussing her groundbreaking book, Envisioning Diplomacy: Japanese Ambassadors in Early Modern Europe. The conversation delves into the Tenshō and Keichō embassies—the first official Japanese delegations to Europe (late 16th to early 17th century). Dr. Fujikawa, an art historian specializing in Italian Renaissance art, reveals how these unprecedented voyages became not only diplomatic milestones but also cultural spectacles, profoundly shaping European visual culture and ideas about Japan. The dialogue explores why Europeans depicted the embassies in art, how clothing and material culture served as diplomatic tools, and how news and images of these events traveled and mutated far beyond the original encounters.

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Key Discussion Points & Insights

Introduction to Dr. Mayu Fujikawa and the Project

• [03:23] Dr. Fujikawa introduces herself as an art historian with personal and academic ties to Italy, the US, and Japan—contexts that inspired her study of Japanese embassies to Italy.
• Research scope: The book focuses on the Tenshō (1580s) and Keichō (early 1600s) embassies, the first and second Japanese diplomatic missions to Europe.
• Motivation & challenge: Early inspiration from Hidemiji Tanaka’s book and the challenge of assembling a vast corpus of art and archival materials over a decade.
• Dr. Fujikawa’s core research question: Why did Europeans depict these embassies in art so extensively? She sought explanations beyond curiosity and economic motives, exploring diplomatic, religious, and cultural significance.

Art, Material Culture, and Diplomacy

The Embassy of Obedience & Papal Portraits

• [10:55] Dr. Fujikawa explains the concept of the "ambassadors of obedience," wherein Catholic rulers sent envoys to demonstrate fealty to the Pope. The four Japanese boys were presented as ambassadors to display the global reach and authority of the Papacy.
  • Quote:
    “Pope Gregory XIII turned the Tenshō embassy into ambassadors of obedience… Gregory wanted to show his authority through textual and visual references.” (Dr. Fujikawa, 12:07)
• Examples of enduring visual commemoration: medals, drawings, and prints, including new discoveries like a 2005 drawing found in a descendant’s old book.

Who Were the Ambassadors?

• [14:45] The four Tenshō envoys were young seminarians from Kyushu, representing their regional lords and accompanied by Jesuit sponsors. The Jesuit and Papal interests shaped their selection and presentation.
• Jesuits hoped the boys would internalize Catholic grandeur and inspire Japanese converts; they also wanted to secure Papal funding and outmaneuver Franciscan rivals.

Visual Representation: Foreign or Assimilated?

• [17:40] Huge emphasis on visual appearance:
  • Jesuits sought hybridization (kimono with discreet European elements) so the boys didn’t appear too foreign, reflecting both concern for decorum and desire not to shock European audiences.
  • The Pope, conversely, wanted the Japanese figures to look clearly foreign in artworks, to emphasize the global Church’s reach.
  • Quote:
    “Jesuits were very much concerned about the visual assimilation of their proteges in Europe. In contrast, the Pope wanted them to stand out...” (Dr. Fujikawa, 18:18)

The Role and Symbolism of the Kimono

• [21:49] The kimono was official ceremonial wear, used sparingly and as a high-status diplomatic tool—reserved for audiences with top monarchs, but also, selectively, to court elite families like the Medici.
  • Jesuits fiercely controlled when kimonos were worn and treated them as tools of "soft power".
  • Used kimonos, swords, and other personal items were offered as gifts—reinforcing an aura of Japanese sophistication, while the Jesuits, resourcefully, minimized expenses on formal presents.
  • European fascination with the kimono enabled cultural exchange:
    “Jesuits utilized the Japanese costume as, I think, soft power to stir Europeans’ interest in Japanese culture and the Japan mission.” (Dr. Fujikawa, 24:15)

Additional Gifts and Foreign Material Culture

• [25:14] Gifts included swords (katana), lacquerware, folding screens (byōbu), and traditional writing sets (yatate) with Japanese paper—objects that often attained spiritual or symbolic significance in Europe.
  • Example: A piece of Japanese paper with religious text, placed in a silver frame, was treasured as a spiritual relic.

Hybrid and European Dress

• [32:16] The embassy members donned European dress for practical reasons and on occasion for safety, especially after arriving in India and the Iberian Peninsula; once in Rome, they toggled between rich European attire and kimono, depending on ceremony and audience.
  • The Pope gifted them lavish European clothes to elevate their status at court. Back in Japan, these same clothes signified European civilization, Papal generosity, and the allure of Christianity.
  • Quote:
    “Once in Japan, the European clothes took on different meanings.” (Dr. Fujikawa, 34:23)

Commemoration Across Cities: Public Art and Self-Glorification

• [39:09] Municipalities celebrated the embassies in site-specific artworks:
  • Venice: An unfinished Jacopo Tintoretto painting was meant to honor their lavish welcome.
  • Vicenza: A fresco in the Olympic Theater emphasized the Academy’s prestige—placing local hosts in the visual foreground and rendering the Japanese figures almost indistinct.
    Quote:
    “The visualization of hospitality in the reception was a form of self-glorification for the cities…” (Dr. Fujikawa, 43:17)

Comparing the Tenshō and Keichō Embassies

• [44:23] The first embassy (Tenshō) set a precedent, influencing attire, expectations, and ritual for the second (Keichō); the latter, sent by Date Masamune, was particularly elaborate in fashion, as reflected in surviving portraits.
• However, the second embassy did not receive identical pageantry, largely because Masamune was not Catholic at the time. The Papacy carefully modulated ceremonial honors based on religious and political alignment.

Visual Manipulation & Artistic Choices

• [49:36] Artistic renditions often distorted reality for symbolic or practical reasons:
  • In Vicenza’s fresco, just three ambassadors are pictured—to fit the Christian iconography of the three Magi.
  • Hair color was sometimes altered to enhance visibility in large murals or convey wisdom.

Circulation of Images and News

• [52:04] The embassies’ fame spread far beyond the actual locales via mass-produced prints and pamphlets:
  • These were translated into French and German, serving not only as information but as counter-Protestant propaganda.
  • Printed portraits were often labeled “true likeness” even when produced in places the embassies never visited, emphasizing the power and reach of the Catholic world.
  • Quote:
    “Printed images help viewers understand immediately how these non-Europeans looked like, because understanding… through text was challenging.” (Dr. Fujikawa, 52:20)

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Notable Quotes & Memorable Moments

• “It took me more than ten years to find these images…the fresco at the Quirinal Palace…occupies the two long walls of a large hall.” (Dr. Fujikawa, 04:23)
• “Why did Europeans depict these Japanese embassies in art? Of course, they had curiosity… But I thought there was something more, because it costs time and money to commission these images.” (Dr. Fujikawa, 05:37)
• “Visual assimilation versus foreign display is a negotiation between the desires of the hosts and the diplomatic aims of the guests.” (Paraphrased from multiple points—see 17:40-19:38)
• “Jesuits utilized the Japanese costume as, I think, soft power to stir Europeans’ interest in Japanese culture and the Japan mission.” (Dr. Fujikawa, 24:15)
• “Number three was very important. There was a tendency among Europeans to connect these Japanese youth from the east with the three Magi.” (Dr. Fujikawa, 49:36)
• “News about these embassies were transferred and translated to counter the Protestants in Northern and Central Europe.” (Dr. Fujikawa, 54:03)

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Timestamps for Key Segments

• [03:23] Dr. Fujikawa’s background; origins of the project
• [10:55] Papal motivations for depicting Japanese envoys; “ambassadors of obedience”
• [14:45] Who were the embassy youth? Jesuit aims
• [17:40] Visual presentation: hybrid vs. foreign in court
• [21:49] Significance and deployment of the kimono in diplomacy
• [25:14] Gifts, swords, lacquerware, writing sets, European responses
• [32:16] Japanese ambassadors in European dress; cross-cultural implications
• [39:09] City-specific commemorations; art as civic glorification
• [44:23] Relationship and distinctions between the two embassies
• [49:36] Artistic manipulations: Magi motif, visibility changes
• [52:04] The wide circulation of images/news and their functions

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Conclusion & Further Research

• [55:47] Dr. Fujikawa is now researching the foodways and culinary adaptation of embassy members during their European travels:
  “I’m working on various projects…one about the Tenshō Embassy’s food experience abroad. Poor them…in Europe, meat after meat.”

• The episode concludes with thanks and reminder of the book’s rich visual documentation, making early modern Japanese-European diplomatic history vivid for contemporary readers.

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For further information:
Envisioning Diplomacy: Japanese Ambassadors in Early Modern Europe is available from Penn State University Press (2025), featuring nearly 100 images from Dr. Fujikawa’s extensive research.

Transcript

[Marshall Poe]

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[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

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[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

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[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

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[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

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[Marshall Poe]

Welcome to the New Books Network.

[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

Hello, and welcome to another episode on the New Books Network. I'm one of your hosts, Dr. Miranda Melcher, and I'm very pleased today to be speaking with Dr. Mayu Fujikawa about her book titled Envisioning Diplomacy, Japanese Ambassadors in Early Modern Europe, published by Penn State University Press in 2025. Now, as the title suggests, we're going to be talking about two particular embassies made by Japanese people. Well, we're going to talk about exactly who they are to specific parts of Europe. There's a whole bunch of different actors involved here. And we're focusing on sort of the end of the 1500s, early 1600s, and of course, the visits themselves, the people involved, as I mentioned, and also the sort of impacts of this, the images created. Because as it turns out, we're going to discuss this. The actual visits themselves, the same people in the same rooms, was really impactful and influential. But even for people who weren't in those rooms, they still knew this was happening. This was still very much of interest. And so we're going to talk about how they knew about that, what they were intrigued by, and how these ideas and images circulated well beyond the actual rooms the embassy took place in, and those rooms too. So clearly we have a lot to discuss here, bringing together lots of different interesting strands. Mayu, thank you so much for joining me on the podcast.

[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

Well, thank you for having me, Miranda.

[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

I'm very pleased to. Could you start us off by introducing yourself a little bit and tell us why you decided to write this book? What sorts of questions are you asking in it and how did you develop them?

[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

Yes. Okay. Yeah. So I'm Mayu Fujikawa and I'm an art historian. In particular, I work on Italian Renaissance art. And by the way, it's kind of exciting that, Miranda, you are in the morning living in the UK and I am enjoying my evening in Japan. And then I spent my childhood in Italy and in the United States. And that's the reason why I wrote a book about the Japanese embassies to Italy. They actually did stop at various places across the world. And the book is written in the English language. And as you said earlier, I focus on the two Japanese embassies. They are called the Tensho and Keicho embassies. So the Tenshou Embassy visited Europe in the late 16th century, and they were the first ever embassy to Europe from Japan. And the Keicho Embassy, in the early 17th century, they were the second embassy to Europe from Japan. And I first became interested in the Keijo Embassy. That was almost three decades ago, long, long time ago. And I read a book written by Hidemiji Tanaka about the Kecho Embassy. And Professor Tanaka described great receptions for this embassy at European Court. He also introduced a fresco depicting the embassy. So I went to see it. It's in Rome and it's in the Queen of Palace. And today it's the residence of Italian president. But back then it was a papal palace. And fresco is just monumental and amazingly beautiful. And it's too bad that I cannot show the images of the fresco during this interview. And I have those images in my book. And in fact my book has almost all the images related to both embassies produced during the early modern period. I actually have nearly 100 images in my book. And of course not all of them depict the embassies, but these are all related to those embassies. And I like to mention also that I work very hard to put together these images. The fresco at the Akron palace occupies the two long walls of a large hall. Some sections from the fresco have been published, not the whole thing. And I finally found the images that represent entire fresco. And took me more than 10 years to find these images. Yeah. So please enjoy them in my book. And what is more, there is a discount when you purchase the book. You can insert the code nr25ns nancy rs richard25 so four letters. So there's a discount. And. Well, going back to the history of my engagement with this project, I need to mention that back then the topic of cross cultural studies was not pursued very much in the field with channeling Renaissance art. So I waited some years and here I am with the book. And my question for the book is simple. Why did Europeans depict these Japanese embassies in art? And of course, Europeans had curiosity about these exciting visitors and the desire to create their mementos. Printmakers also wanted to sell their prints to make some profits. But I thought there was something more because it costs time and money to commission the images of these Japanese visitors. So I explored some possible reasons in my book and for my research. I ended up examining a lot of things. Visual representations, the embassies, of course, frescoes including a lost fresco, oil paintings, including a never finished painting, prints, including the one I found books, illustrations including the one I rediscovered, and drawings, archival documents related to the embassies. I just love going to the archives. Letters written by these embassies, by their samurai lords and by European diplomats. I also read pamphlets and books about these embassies which were printed back then. I discuss diplomatic rituals of the Papacy and of Republic of Venice and what else? Medals, lacquerware, portable writing set, and most importantly, clothing. And yeah, confession. I'm not a costume historian, but I spent a great amount of time studying about both Japanese and European clothing. And I just wanted to know about the clothing that the embassies wear in their portraits. Then I realized that clothing was and still is very important in diplomacy. So the clothing represented who these embassies were and what their lords were like. The closing was also important for the European host to welcome these embassies. And I'm not done yet. I also examined European visual representations and reception of other non Europeans. And they were ambassadors and visitors from Korea, China, Persia, Ethiopia, Congo and Americas. So early modern Europeans interacted not just with the Japanese, but also with peoples of other parts of the world. So no wonder it took me ages to finish the book.

[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

Yeah, there's certainly so many different things there that you looked at, and I'm so glad you gave us such a list early on in our conversation because now we can draw on it for the rest of our discussion. Discussion and understand the richness of the sources you could engage with. But it really also makes this point already of like, how important these embassies were. Right. If they didn't, you know, they. The fact that we have all these different kinds of materials to engage with really shows the point of what you're arguing that like, this is a. This is worth looking into.

[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

Right.

[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

People at the time certainly thought so too. And it's these questions of what, why they were so interested that I'd like to talk more about. Because, for example, in chapter one, you start off discussing portraits of young Japanese students. But the interesting part, or at least to me, was that these were commissioned by the Pope. That kind of created an obvious question in my head. Why would a 16th century pope, who obviously has a lot of other things to be doing, why was he commissioning images of. Of a group of young Japanese people?

[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

Yeah, good question. And then I need to present here the concept of embassy of obedience. Ambassadors of obedience. Catholic kings and princes sent ambassadors who showed obedience on their behalf to the Pope. So here obedience meant recognition of the Pope as Christ's figure on earth and the supreme leader of the Church. So in other words, the Pope as the top guy. So apparently such ambassadors are important for the Pope. So those ambassadors who came to pay obedience to him. So Pope Gregory XIII turned the tension embassy into ambassador's obedience. So the Tensh embassy consisted of four students from a Jesuit seminary in Japan. So they were students and they came to Rome in 1585. And upon their arrival, Gregory XVII decided that these seminarians were ambassadors. The Pope interpreted that they came to pay obedience to the Pope on behalf of their Catholic seminary lords. So these seminarians were carrying the letters from their Catholic Semite lords. Once the Japanese students were reaching Rome, the Pope applied diplomatic protocol for the ambassadors to present them as such. So the students were welcomed by a grand entry parade for ambassadors. The students also met the Pope in a magnificent people audience for Ambassadors Gregory de Satin and his associates wanted to show his authority through textual and visual references to the tension embassy as ambassadors of obedience. So Gregory de Satin's medal has his profile on one side of the coin of the medal. And if you flip that medal, you find an inscription. And there the text states, the Japanese king's first delegation and obedience to the Pope. Also, a drawing shows one of the Japanese students as ambassador. And this drawing was discovered in 2005. A descendant of Gregory XIII found the drawing in an old book. So we never know what we may find between the pages. Yep, we may be lucky enough. In my book, I argue that the drawing was created for Gregory xii. I also analyze prints that show the embassy kneeling and demonstrating obedience to the Pope. So apparently such a depiction was very important for the Pope. So not just shaking hands or things like that, but kneeling and then showing obedience to him. So I consider that a fresco, which most likely depicted such an obedience scene used to decorate Gregory XI's funerary monument at St. Peter's this fresco no longer exists. It was demolished.

[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

So let's, I suppose, take a step. Well, I don't even know if it backwards or forwards.

[Commercial Announcer]

Right.

[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

We're talking about images, the reproduction of them, but also, of course, actual people traveling to actual places. So can you tell us more about who these young men were and how and why they ended up physically in the Vatican?

[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

Yeah. So these young men were all from the island of Kyushu, and Kyushu is located in the southern part of Japan. And they all attended a Jesuit seminary in Kyushu. And among the four, Ito Mansho was ranked highest. So he represented Otomo Yoshishige, the most powerful lord in Kyushu. Mansho was a distant relative of Yoshishige Chijiwa. Miguel represented Arima Harunobu and Omura Sumitada. Harunobu and Sumitada owned much smaller territories in Kyushu than Yoshishige. Miguel was Harunobu's cousin and Sumidata's nephew. The Pope assigned the title of ambassadors to Manchu and Miguel. They had a better pedigree than the other two. And these two were Hara Martin and Nakaura Julian. Martin was excellent in foreign languages. Good for him. And Julian was murdered upside down when Christianity was prohibited later in Japan. And Jesuit brought these students to Rome so that they would see the greatness of Catholic world. Upon their return, the Jesuits wanted them to convey what they had observed to Japanese people. The Jesuits also wanted to promote the success of of the Japan Mission and gained financial aid from the Pope and other dignity and in addition, Jesuits sought to safeguard the monopoly over the Japan mission against their rivals, the Franciscans. The Franciscans also wanted to preach in Japan.

[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

Okay. So therefore they got sent to the Vatican to kind of, I suppose, firm up these relations, given what you were saying earlier about kind of, well, the pedigree and also the kind of power relations around the Pope and other people from other places that he really wanted to establish. So if we're thinking about these travelers now coming to the Vatican, obviously this is a very involved process. This is not, as you've already established, something that happens on the spur of the moment. It's very much thought through all of these details. So when we think about the visual details, to what extent did these Jesuits, did the Pope want visitors from Japan to visually assimilate, I. E. Not look too foreign, or did they want these. These visitors to look foreign? Like, what was the rationale behind the visual presentation of this embassy?

[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

Yeah, so the Jesuit seminarians in Japan were bold. They had to shave their heads completely like Buddhist monks. That was a sign of worldly renouncement. But then the images of Tenshou Embassy indicate that the Japanese youth were not bald, while in Europe they had short hair. So Jesuits evidently allowed their students to keep some hair in Europe. So in this manner, Europeans would not be surprised to see some bald heads, you know, traveling. So the Jesuit also had the Japanese use wear their kimono with a few pieces of European clothing, such as hat ruffs and undergarments, because a kimono exposed the neck and the sleeves was short, only three quarter length. So it was inappropriate to exhibit heads, necks and arms at European court. So the Jesuits had the Japanese cover their heads, necks and arms with these extra items. So the Japanese use kimono fashion in Europe with hybrid. So Japanese kimono plus some European items. Obviously, Jesuits were very much concerned about the visual assimilation of their proteges in Europe. In contrast, the Pope wanted them to stand out, to show that ambassadors from a distant civilization came to see him. So the drawing of Manchot, which I think was created for Gregory the 17th, therefore portrays this Japanese visitor in his kimono, not in European clothing. The image of kimono would stand out and then would have helped emphasize the fact that he had come from a very far place.

[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

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[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

Yeah, the kimono is definitely a really key part of these images that are being produced even in the examples you've given us already in terms of the hybrid clothing to sort of fit in. But as you said, sort of not too much because there's an important signaling aspect here. It goes beyond that, though. You have a bunch of other examples of the kimono being elevated in particular ways to European audiences, like who gets to see them in person and how they're described. Can you tell us more about the role of the kimono in all of this?

[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

Yeah, so it was prestigious for Gregory Desertines to have Mancho portrayed in his kimono because they did not wear their kimono before anyone. The Jesuits controlled when and to whom to show their kimono. So the kimono that the embassy had was just formal wear. However, the Jesuits treated the embassy's kimono as official ceremonial clothing for meeting King Philip II of Spain and the Pope only. And I give you an example of how the Jesuits guarded the embassy's kimono dressing. So yeah, yeah, King Philip II annexed Portugal and his nephew Albert VII of Austria became Viceroy of Portugal. For an audience with Oliver, the embassy was dressed in European clothing. The Jesuits reserved the official display of the Japanese youth kimono for Philip II because Philip was the foremost authority of the state. So in any case, the youth were to wear the kimono only to meet the royals. But of course, every rule has exceptions. So the Jesuits had the Japanese youth dressed in the kimono when they visited Duke Francesco de Medici and his wife, Bianca Capello. And I think the Jesuit made an exception to win the favor of the Medici couple. And in doing so, like, they made a big, big deal. They emphasized that the embassy's kimono was worn by the royals in Japan, but the embassy kimono was actually modest in quality. The Jesuit also stated that the youth had worn the kimono before Philip II and would put it on only for the Pope when they reach Rome. So the gesso emphasized that kimono display to the Medici couple was special. And in reality, the Spanish king, the Pope, and the Medici couple were not the only viewers of the Yusukemoto. Some other Europeans also sold the Japanese garment, though privately. So Jesuit utilized the Japanese costume as, I think, soft power to stir Europeans interest in Japanese culture and the Japan mission.

[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

I mean, it clearly worked, right? These are very powerful people that are like, oh, yes, please come present yourselves in your komodo to us. So the soft power of the kimono is clearly very effective here. But there were other, also other aspects of foreignness that I know were interesting to these audiences. So you mentioned a little bit about kind of the issues around hair and ruffs and sort of what was sort of assimilated to not be too strange. But in addition to kimono, what were some other aspects that kind of show up a lot in these images and these texts we have about what European audiences were so interested in?

[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

Okay, yeah. Speaking of kimono, I still like to add that because there's so much interest in kimono, the Jesuits were able to use it as gifts to European dignitaries. So in other words, like, they were used clothes. And so these Japanese had worn their kimono. So used kimono, in a sense, the Venetian Republic was one of the recipients of the embassy's used kimono. On the other hand, republic gave the embassy a lot of new, luxurious clothes. So one person cynically reported the Jesuit fathers had kindly donated old clothes to the Venetian government to get new ones. And the embassy also gave away swords to the Republic of Venice and to some European dignitaries. And the Europeans were impressed with the craftsmanship of the katana blade. So going back to what you said, like, what those Europeans were interested in, apart from the kimono, they're very much interested in katana. And we have images of Japanese youth, foreign outfit. So the artist depicted this Japanese in the kimono and with the swords. And there are beautiful drawings by Federico Zuccari, and it's sad that I cannot show the drawings during my book. And also there are interesting woodblock illustrations of one of the Japanese youth. And they were published by Alessandro Benacci in Bologna. And I think the anonymous artists of the illustrations did not see the Japanese in person. Kimono and swords look strange, like katana. Swords actually look like serpents. So the artist most likely based his images on a textual description of the Yu's outfit. Now, the Jesuit made use of the Yu's other personal belongings. I don't think that they were originally brought to Europe as courtly gifts. Francesco de Medici received yatate. It's a portable pen case and has a short stick. It's like a shaft. And the shaft could contain a brush. And there is also an ink well that could be attached to the shaft or could be separated from the shaft. And then Francesco de Medici also received sheets of Japanese paper. And Japanese paper is so thin. So one European back then wrote, oh, one cannot think which pen we're in to write with. So those Japanese travelers would have been carrying the yatate and sheets of Japanese paper. And that was apparently to take notes of what they were seeing during their travel, their study abroad, and Europeans were interested in Japanese calligraphy. The Embassy gave pieces of Japanese paper to Francesco de Medici containing Japanese texts about God and the Virgin Mary. A piece of Japanese paper containing passages from the Book of Psalms in Japanese was given to Bernard Macijoski. And Macijoski later became archbishop in Poland. So back then he was studying at Collegio Romano in Rome. And apparently so these sheets served as special prayer aids. The piece of paper for Matiuski was placed inside an elaborately worked silver frame. So Europeans added great spiritual significance to the Embassy's gift of religious texts. And these Japanese travelers were considered almost saint, and they had conducted a long and dangerous journey to meet the Pope for their face. Now the embassy could not bring many gifts from Japan. The Jesuit explained they had to leave Nagasaki very quickly. And in any case, the Jesuits, I think, saved a lot of money by giving away the embassy's used kimono, swords and other personal items, and a sheets of paper with Japanese writing. However, the Embassy also did bring valuable folding screens from Japan, which are called Byobu. They included Dazuchi, Byobu are now lost. The folding screens depicted the new Azuchi castle and the city that Oda Nobunaga, de facto ruler Japan, had built. The embassy gifted the screens to Gregory xiii. The embassy also presented a small number of lacquered products to European elite. For example, Philip II appreciated a sagay jus. And this sagay ju was most likely lacquered. And saage is a portable picnic set. And inside this small compartment, there were many things, most importantly a sake bottle and cups, some other drawers for food. And the Jesuit offered Philip II intricate lacquerware to impress him with its craftsmanship. The Jesuit wanted to display the advanced civilization of the Japanese and importance to convert them.

[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

So this is really helpful to talk about the foreign aspects of what, what the Japanese were wearing, what they brought with them, how people responded to this. But I want to talk a little bit more about what you mentioned earlier in terms of the kind of hybrid dressing in some instances, and you go even further in that there's instances in the book where the Japanese people in the embassy wore more than just bits of European clothes, wore like a lot more, you know, full outfits of European clothes. So when and why was that considered an important thing for members of the Japanese embassy to do? To abandon the kimono and wear European dress?

[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

Yep, yep. So as you said, like a. Back in Japan, they wore kimono, and that was what students at the Jesuit seminaries had in Japan. So kimono at school. Then the embassy left Nagasaki with the Jesuit, and by the time the youth reached the Indian subcontinent, they, as you said, had abandoned kimono and were wearing European clothing. So when they reached the Indian subcontinent, they were wearing European clothing and they were dressed like the Jesuits. So some clothing, such clothing would have reflected these students commitment to a religious life. The outfit, I think, also allowed this Japanese to blend in with their Jesuit chaperones. So they're traveling with Jesuit followers. So the Japanese may have been able to travel safely in that manner. And then the embassy reached the Iberian Peninsula. There they were mostly dressed like the Jesuits, so they had humble clothes. Then once they reached Rome as ambassadors, then the humble clothes were not good enough. In addition, the Jesuits did not want their youth to wear the kimono in public and draw too much attention. So there was this danger of turning these students into exotic performers in kimono. So after two public papal ceremonies, the Jesuits did not have the Japanese wear their kimono outside or during major court events. But ambassadors needed to attend papal ceremonies and dress well. So what did our Japanese youth wear? So this is now the time when the Gregory XII is gifted this Japanese with various sets of luxurious European clothes. So the Pope lavishly dressed up his ambassadorial figures followers. He in this way elevated the appearance at court and emphasized the success of evangelizing such elite people from the opposite part of the world. And amazingly I was able to trace when the Japanese wore these new European clothes during the papal ceremonies. And plus after they left Rome, they toured around central and northern Italy and when they returned to Japan. So the youth showed their rich European clothes to Japanese dignitaries and they were impressed. So once in Japan, the European clothes took on different meanings. The clothes were to show the great civilization of Europe, the exceptional generosity and wealth of the Pope, and to draw Japanese people's interest in Christianity. And the youth had an audience with Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1591. He was ruling Japan at that time and on that occasion they wore the black velvet robes decorated with gold lace. The robes had been gifted by Gregory xiii. A fresco located in the Vatican library depicts the Japanese figures dressed in these black velvet robes. I found also an engraving that pulled trays these Japanese figures in the same robes. So the black velvet gowns the fresco and engraving are illustrated in my book. And Hideyoshi had banned Christianity in Japan and expelled missionaries in 1587. With the Japanese used dazzling European clothes, the Jesuits sought to make Hideyoshi interested in European clothes, culture and religion.

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[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

Effy hmm, this is so interesting to hear about the changing meaning of the same outfit.

[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

Right.

[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

But in different places. It means different things. I'd love to talk more though about the cities beyond the Vatican that the embassy goes to. You talked a bit about kind of. They toured around and we've discussed some of the frescoes in the Vatican. You just mentioned the one in the library. But what ways were these visits beyond the Vatican commemorated? In images in other cities.

[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

So as you mentioned the tension Embassy toured around Italy after visiting Rome and the embassy was generally welcomed in each place. Usually welcome was genuine in many cases. But I would add that orders from the dominant central authority also shaped the reception of the Japanese. So what I mean by that Towns in the Papal state received a letter from Rome requesting the warm welcome of the embassy. The Republic of Venice also received a letter from its ambassador in rome stating that Pope 6v, who succeeded Gregory XIII, wished for a warm welcome. Then once the embassy arrived in Venice, the Republic requested a warm welcome to Vicenza and other towns in the Venetian state. So speaking of Venice and Vicenza, they each commissioned a painting showing the reception of the Tinchel Embassy. The painting in Venice was commissioned to Jacopo Tintoletto. It was intended for Sala del Maggior Consigilio and this space was the largest and most important hole in the Doge's palace. But the painting was never finished and from document I consider that painting was to be big, large, monumental. It was to contain two scenes. One scene was to depict the reception of the embassy on an island in the lagoon. It was Venice custom to welcome foreign dignitaries on one of its islands. The other scene was to show the embassy's audience with the dodge of Venice. In the painting I think there were to be many figures the embassy, the Doge, Venetian Nobles and state officers, their lavish clothes, mini gondola's boats. Through numerous portraits of richly dressed figures, the Republic of Venice sought to convey the prosperity of their city. Now, on the other hand, the fresco in Vicenza was finished. It is located in the Olympic Theater, a beautiful place. The Olympic Academy commissioned Andre Palaudio to design the Olympic Theater. And this academy was composed of intellectuals who wanted to study classical studies, the sciences, especially mathematics, medicines and astrology, as well as the arts. And it's kind of amazing that the Academy still exists. So almost after 500 years, it still exists. Yeah, yeah, it's very nice. So an academy had the fresco painted in the festival where many visitors gathered before entering the theater. So this fresco depicts academy's welcome of the embassy at Olympic Theater. The embassy was received in the theater with an oration by one of the Academicians. So the fresco shows the Academician giving his oration at the podium. Meanwhile, the Japanese figures are depicted seated at the theater. And I think the foresight of the fresco are the Academician and the theater. The Academician is depicted prominently. Standing alone at the podium, he is separated from the others. The crowded theater dominates the composition. But the Japanese figures are not conspicuous in the fresco. It's actually very difficult to find them within the painting. So the fresco celebrates the Academy's generous hospitality and the far reaching fame of the theater. The idea conveyed is that the foreign visitors from Japan came to see our theater theater. So in a sense, the visualization of hospitality in the reception was a form of self glorification for the cities and citizens of Venice and Virginia. So although the images depicted the Japanese, they were about these Europeans themselves.

[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

That's always very interesting to see, kind of what images are made and of course for what purposes. So thank you for analyzing that for us. Now, I realize you mentioned at the beginning that of course the book is looking at two different embassies that go from Japan to the Vatican, separated by not that much time really. But obviously one came first and would have been sort of in the minds of people both in Japan and in Europe. Or was that the case? In what ways was the reception of the second embassy influenced by memories of the first one? Or were there significant differences between the two?

[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

Yeah, this is a fabulous question. Until I began writing about both embassies, researchers generally focused on either the Tensho or the Keicho Embassy. So their connection had not been researched in depth. The travel of the first Japanese Embassy to Europe was such a big deal that it must have affected the second Japanese Embassy. So in Japan I'm quite sure that Date Masamune knew about the Tensho Embassy. Masamune was a great samurai lord in northern Japan. He dispatched the Keicho Embassy. Masamune was ambitious, intellectual and well informed. There are many fans of Masamune in Japan, and I'm one of them. And Masamune could find out about the earlier travelers to Europe when he was visiting Kyoto in 1592. Just a year earlier, they had an audience with Hideyoshi. Their splendid European fashion created a great sensation in Kyoto. Masamune was known to be very fashionable. He owned European side clothing. And for his ambassador, Hasekura Rokuemum, Masamune prepared a lavish kimono set. By the way, the portrait of Hasekura in this amazing kimono is the COVID of my book. So the ambassador Hasekura. Yeah, it's my cover boy. Yeah. And I think Masamune expected similar public ceremonies that the Tensho Embassy received in Rome for his ambassador. So the tension youth had been received in a grand entry parade into the city of Rome. The audience with the Pope was magnificent, taking place in a special hall called Sara Regia in the Vatican. In my view, Masamune expected the same grandiose reception from the papacy. He had Hasekura wear an incredibly lavish kimono ensemble with gold and multicolored motifs and patterns. And in this portrait, Hasekura also wears an undergarment not to show his arms. And this undergarment matches with his kimono in color and texture. So I think Masamune had all the sartorial ideas prepared in Japan before Hasekere's departure for Europe. So everything perfect from head to toe. So Masamune expected grand public ceremonies in Rome. And yes, Hasekere did parade in Rome wearing this lavish kimono and undergarment along with a ruff and hat. But the parade and audience for the Keisha Embassy were not the same as those for the Tenshi Embassy. Masamune was not Catholic. He was not baptized yet. So the papacy remembered the ceremonies for the Tenshou Embassy. Those ceremonies took place, had taken place exactly 30 years ago. So 30 years ago, the papacy did not allow prelates, cardinals and bishops to join the Cajo Embassy's entry parade. The papacy also did not hold the audience in the Vatican. The Vatican sala regia for the Cajo Embassy. In addition, Pope did not wear full papal regalia, the papal tiaram and long cape during the audience with the Keichu Embassy. So differentiations were all because Masamune was not Catholic yet.

[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

This is really interesting to have this Comparison across the two embassies. Thank you for looking at both of them so that we can understand the differences. And in fact, it's on that subject of difference that I'd like to go to next, because we've mentioned frescoes a number of times. Clearly that was one of the visual responses to these embassies. But the frescoes are, of course, not the same as, for example, photographs. I mean, obviously they're not made the same way, but there's some clearly intentional differences happening around kind of what the people making the frescoes actually saw with the embassies and what they put in the finished version. For instance, you have some examples in the book, like instead of showing four students with the First Embassy, there's a fresco that only shows three. Or instead of showing their hair colour as being black, which it was, they are in the fresco with grey hair. So given that frescoes were such a big response to this, they've come up, as I said a number of times in our conversation, why were these kinds of changes made?

[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

Yeah, number three was very important. Yep. So in the fresco at Vicenza, Vicente's Olympic Theatre, only three out of four students were portrayed. Yep. So not four, just three. And there was a tendency among Europeans to connect these Japanese youth from the east with the three Magi. The three Magi traveled from the east to venerate the newborn Christ. Europeans considered that just like them, the youth came from Japan to venerate Christ figure, the Pope. But it was too bad that there were four Japanese. So one was eliminated and only the three were depicted at Vicenza and in the Quino Palace, Dafresco depicts Hasekura based on his portrait in oil, the image that I have on the COVID of my book. And in that portrait, Hasekura is black haired, but in the Criminal palace, his hair was painted gray, as you said. So he looks more advanced in age and sagacious. And behind him were painted his Japanese travel companions and Hasekura. And his travel companion's hair was painted gray and black, alternatively. So perhaps it was to increase the visibility of each figure. The fresco is located at the upper part of a wall, very far away from the viewers. So maybe having black gray hair help the viewers realize each figure within the fresco.

[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

That's interesting to see the ways in which changes happen, because the story doesn't quite fit reality, which is, of course, such an issue with sort of having news go around. I mean, even in this case, it was kind of done on purpose. But obviously there's also the issue of news travels, not always accurately, even Today. And of course, back then, the technology was very different. So in fact, how far from where the embassies actually were did news and images of these embassies travel? What kind of information was seen as being of interest? To go further, who wanted to know this? Where were they? What kinds of information did they get?

[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

Yeah, and this is very interesting because the fresco only existed one. So only those who are able to visit Kringel palace, the papal palace, were able to see the image. But then, apart from the frescoes or oil paintings, there were also printed images produced. So these printed images depicted the Japanese embassies, and they were produced en masse, thousands of them, cheap light, and they were easy to be carried. They were transferred to distant places. And interestingly, when a print was reproduced in France, where the embassy, the Tenshu Embassy, did not visit, I noticed that a local printer added the term true likeness and taken from life. And apparently these terms were to emphasize that the visual information was correct. And in any case, the printed images help viewers understand immediately how these non Europeans look like, because understanding how they look like, like through text was challenging. But with images, they could understand immediately how they look like those rare visitors from a distance. Now, a lot of prints of booklets about these embassies were also produced back then, and especially for the Tenshou Embassy. There were nearly 80 pamphlets and booklets being produced. And many of these printed materials about potential use conveyed information about the papal audience, where they paid obedience to the Pope on behalf of their Catholic lords. In Japan. The printed images and texts about the embassies were transferred to the places where they did not travel, for example, to Northern and Central Europe. These texts were published in Latin. They got translated into French and German. And after all, news about these embassies were transferred and translated to counter the Protestants in northern and central Europe. These printed materials generally contained information that the Japanese travelers were Catholics who came to see the Pope. The four tension members were Catholic. Hasekere was Catholic, though his master, Masamune, was not. Moreover, publications about the travel to Rome helped promote the success of the Jesuit and Franciscan missions in Japan. The Tensho Embassy was a Jesuit enterprise. The Keicho Embassy was led by the Franciscan Luis Sotelo. The image of Sotelo is depicted prominently in such a book. He's also mentioned more prominently in the text than Hasekura in such Franciscan publication.

[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

Very interesting to see how these embassies are influential well beyond the places that they specifically visited. And of course, that you have collected all of this information and translated it across time as well, that now in the 21st century, centuries later, we can still get such an idea of what the visits were and the impacts that they had. So thank you for taking us through many of the aspects of the book, leaving me with just the final question of what you might be working on now that it's done.

[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

So I'm working on various projects and one of them is about the Tenshou Embassy's food experience abroad. So I'm exploring the gastronomic reception of the embassy at various places in Europe. I'm just curious about what the youth ate abroad. They used to eat rice and fish back in Japan. Simple and light. And in Europe, meat after meat. Poor them. We talk about cultural adaptation. Today, eating foreign food can be challenging. Cultural adaptation. It involves our own digestion system, our own stomach. We all know how hard it is from our own international travels. So I hope to finish my new book by next summer.

[Dr. Miranda Melcher]

Well, as you said, that's very relatable. I think so. Definitely an interesting topic. And of course, while you are working on it, listeners can read the book we've been discussing titled Envisioning Japanese Ambassadors in Early Modern Europe, published by Penn State University Press in 2025. Mayu, thank you so much for joining me on the podcast.

[Dr. Mayu Fujikawa]

Thank you very much for having Mimi Roundup.

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