Podcast Summary: "Thunder Cross: Fascist Antisemitism in Twentieth-Century Latvia"

Podcast: New Books Network
Host: Roland Clark
Guest: Paula Oppermann
Date: October 29, 2025
Book: Thunder Cross: Fascist Antisemitism in Twentieth-Century Latvia (U Wisconsin Press, 2025)

Overview

This episode explores Paula Oppermann's groundbreaking book on the Latvian fascist movement "Thunder Cross" (Pērkonkrusts) and its deep involvement with antisemitism before, during, and after WWII. Roland Clark leads a detailed conversation spanning the movement’s origins in Latvian nationalism, its ideological foundations, violent actions, role in the Holocaust, and postwar legacies. The dialogue reveals how Latvian fascism was simultaneously influenced by and distinct from other European varieties and how antisemitism became entwined with Latvian identity politics.

Key Discussion Points and Insights

1. Origins and Ideological Context

[01:32–08:57]

• Thunder Cross founded as Fire Cross in 1932 during a pan-European surge in fascism (Italy, Germany, Finland, Romania).
• Latvian fascism shared aesthetics (uniforms, symbolism, violence) and core ideological elements (‘the new man’, anti-modernity), with a unique focus on "Latvian purity" and anti-German sentiment.
• Despite emulating Mussolini and Hitler, Latvian fascists denied being fascists to avoid association with the unpopular Baltic German elite and German Nazis.
• “They wanted to create, based on this, a new society that would be based on everything that modernity was not: so absolutely anti-liberal, sexist, being ruled by a dictatorship. And all this was something that Thunder Cross absolutely embraced.” — Paula Oppermann [06:37]

2. Antisemitism in Latvian Nationalism

[08:57–17:47]

• Antisemitism had roots in 19th-century Latvian nationalism, which defined nationhood ethnically, distinguishing Jews as existential threats rather than economic rivals (unlike Baltic Germans).
• Early 20th-century Latvian public figures, politicians, and intellectuals provided platforms to antisemites, normalizing their ideas even if not everyone agreed.
• Universities were a hotbed of antisemitic agitation, with violent riots, marriage prohibitions, and demands for Jewish student quotas—mirroring trends across Eastern Europe.
• “It was accepted by the mainstream... antisemitism becomes not only a theoretical debate among politicians, but then you also have radical right-wing organizations that engage in antisemitic street violence, for example, already in 1922.” — Oppermann [12:13]

3. Foundation and Leadership

[17:47–20:24]

• Gustav Zelmins, a former antisemitic student activist and war veteran, was central to founding Fire Cross, seeking to emulate mass-mobilization strategies seen in Italy and Germany and moving beyond ineffective elite politics.

4. Propaganda, Press, and Mass Reach

[20:24–26:03]

• The group’s weekly magazine Ugunkrusts was both a key outreach medium and a tool for internal solidarity, with 8,000–15,000 subscribers (significant for Latvia’s small population).
• Content overwhelmingly focused on Jews — both as symbols of communism and as economic threats — challenging previous scholarship claiming greater animus toward Germans.
• “When I read the periodical, I felt like, okay, nearly everything here is about Jews… So I conducted a quantitative analysis of the articles, and in fact, the absolute majority of articles was explicitly about Jews.” — Oppermann [23:55]

5. Violence as Practice and Performance

[26:03–30:52]

• Thunder Cross incited and directly participated in violent incidents, including the 1932 Riga football stadium pogrom—where hundreds attacked Jewish players/fans and looted shops.
  • “A group of approximately 500 people… marched to the city center, sang antisemitic songs, threatened people on the street, and actually smashed shop windows… This must have made quite an impression, both on people who were onlookers, but of course, also on the Jewish inhabitants of the city.” — Oppermann [27:41]
• Also orchestrated “psychological violence,” e.g., the “Week of Assault” when antisemitic graffiti appeared across Latvia, intimidating Jewish citizens.

6. Government Response and Legal Adaptation

[30:52–32:12]

• Thunder Cross was banned in early 1933 but quickly resurfaced as a political party using legal loopholes, with leadership and activities unchanged, reflecting their persistence and authorities’ challenges in stamping out the movement.

7. Social Respectability and Support

[32:12–34:13]

• Disapproval was strong among leftists (especially Social Democrats), but public tolerance or even open support was evident in elites and mainstream society. Cafés served as informal headquarters for the movement.

8. Women in the Movement

[34:13–36:34]

• Women were initially excluded by Zelmins’ design but eventually formed their own section, involved mostly in supportive roles but occasionally in clandestine activities (smuggling messages, sheltering fugitives).
  • “Within the boundaries that they had within the fascist movement, they were quite involved.” — Oppermann [36:10]

9. Suppression and Survival Post-Ban

[36:34–41:36]

• Banned again after the 1933 crackdown, Thunder Cross attempted to resurface through front organizations and illegal print media, shifting propaganda efforts to clandestine slogans and leaflets.
• Church networks (especially Lutheran, also neo-pagan) provided secret meeting spaces and infrastructure after bans.

10. Ulmanis’ Dictatorship and Thunder Cross

[41:36–44:43]

• Prime Minister Kārlis Ulmanis staged a coup in 1934, establishing a conservative dictatorship.
• Initially, Thunder Cross was not targeted, and rumors existed of potential cooperation, but relations deteriorated after Zelmins’ propaganda turned against Ulmanis, leading to the arrest and imprisonment of movement leaders.

11. Exile and International Connections

[44:43–49:25]

• Released from prison in 1937, Zelmins traveled through fascist Europe:
  • Attempted (unsuccessfully) to ally with Mussolini in Italy.
  • Connected closely with Iron Guard in Romania (shared antisemitism, direct collaboration, even skiing).
  • Engaged with Swiss and Finnish fascists, served as a translator in the Finnish Winter War.
  • “He created something that he called a new Europe, which was kind of the idea of creating a Europe that consisted of fascist states and that were all under the leadership of... Mussolini. And Sze Minch himself then saw himself... as like the second man to Mussolini, which I think is quite interesting to say the least.” — Oppermann [45:18]

12. Soviet Occupation and Collaboration with Nazis

[49:25–57:38]

• 1940 Soviet occupation led to the repression, deportation, and execution of Thunder Cross members and associates using detailed Latvian police files.
• Under Nazi occupation (1941–44), Thunder Cross members (including Zelmins) collaborated as translators, informants, and in local administration. The group participated in pre-massacre organization, arrests, and looting, and provided volunteers to Nazi killing squads.
  • “So there’s absolutely direct involvement in this crime. Then I also found sources of women who were responsible for overseeing the distribution of looted Jewish goods.” — Oppermann [53:37]
• Despite initial German favor, Thunder Cross was soon banned for being too independently active; some members later participated in anti-German resistance.

13. Postwar Memory and Diaspora Narratives

[57:38–62:38]

• In exile (West Germany, US, Canada, Australia), movement leaders rebranded themselves as anti-German and anti-Communist freedom fighters.
• Zelmins wrote memoirs emphasizing opposition to Nazis while completely omitting earlier fascist/antisemitic activities.
  • “He wrote his memoirs… and Samin’s memoirs begin — what a surprise — with the day of his arrest by the Germans. So there’s absolutely nothing about his activities beforehand.”
• In Cold War context, these narratives gained traction, sometimes masking continued antisemitism under anti-Zionist rhetoric.

Notable Quotes & Memorable Moments (with Timestamps)

• Fascist Identity in Latvia:
  “They really thought that once there was this pure ancient Latvian tribes and these were destroyed also by mixing with other races, particularly with Jews… to revive this pure Latvian-ness, you had to create a revolution... and then to create, of course, a dictatorship, because only a dictator could unite the people.” — Paula Oppermann [06:25]

• On Mainstream Antisemitism:
  “Strong antisemitism was not something that was a mainstream opinion, but it was accepted by the mainstream. And this is the first, I think, important thing to kind of remember.” — Oppermann [12:35]

• Antisemitic Student Life:
  “Some of them even prohibited their members from marrying Jews. ... In December 1922, when suddenly large groups of students started to block Jewish students from entering the university buildings. And then they were singing all these antisemitic songs, and they harassed them and actually attacked the Jewish students. And these riots went on and on for weeks—actually months.” — Oppermann [15:30]

• Violence, Words and Actions:
  “It is quite an impressive example of how words actually can turn into action, and that the Latvian fascists were really involved in this.” — Oppermann on the 1932 football pogrom [28:57]

• Women’s Role:
  “Despite this, I think, quite nasty image that the fascists propagated, [some women] wanted to be part of this movement. … Within the boundaries that they had within the fascist movement, they were quite involved.” — Oppermann [36:10]

• Collaboration and Holocaust Participation:
  “There’s absolutely direct involvement in this crime. … Also the evidence of Thundercross women having participated in the genocide.” — Oppermann [53:37]

• Postwar Transformation:
  “He wrote his memoirs… and Samin’s memoirs begin — what a surprise — with the day of his arrest by the Germans. So there’s absolutely nothing about his activities beforehand.” — Oppermann [58:22]
  “His interest was always with the persecuted. And I really think this speaks for itself.” — Oppermann, quoting a 1990s obituary for a major Thunder Cross activist [62:32]

Important Segment Timestamps

• What is Thunder Cross, and Latvian fascism’s context: [01:32–08:57]
• Roots and acceptance of antisemitism in Latvia: [08:57–17:47]
• Thunder Cross leadership and genesis: [17:47–20:24]
• Use and content of propaganda magazines: [20:24–26:03]
• Violence and football stadium pogrom: [26:03–30:52]
• Social and governmental response, movement bans: [30:52–32:12], [36:34–41:36]
• Women in Thunder Cross: [34:13–36:34]
• Ulmanis’s dictatorship and Thunder Cross: [41:36–44:43]
• Zelmins’s international fascist networking: [44:43–49:25]
• Thunder Cross under Soviet/Nazi occupation and Holocaust: [49:25–57:38]
• Postwar diaspora and memory politics: [57:38–62:38]

Final Thoughts

Through sharp historical analysis and vivid examples, Paula Oppermann’s research reveals that Latvian fascism and antisemitism were not imported or secondary but homegrown and central to the nation’s turbulent twentieth-century history. Thunder Cross’s story — from university riots to violence in the streets, from failed bid for mass movement to complicity in the Holocaust and reinvention in exile — complicates preconceptions about Latvia’s past and the legacy of European fascism.