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- [00:01]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Want to walk the halls of Anne Boleyn's childhood home? Or explore the castles that made up Henry VIII's English stronghold? With a subscription to History hit, you can dive into our Tudor past alongside the world's leading historians and archaeologists. You'll also unlock hundreds of hours of original documentaries with a brand new release every single week covering everything from the ancient world to to World War II. Just visit historyhit.com subscribe.
- [00:35]
Podcast Advertiser/Host
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- [01:50]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Hank.
- [01:51]
Podcast Advertiser/Host
What's going on?
- [01:51]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
We haven't worked a case in years.
- [01:53]
Podcast Advertiser/Host
I just bought my car at Carvana and it was so. Oh, easy.
- [01:56]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Too easy. Think something's up?
- [01:58]
Podcast Advertiser/Host
You tell me. They got thousands of options, found a great car at a great price, and it got delivered the next day.
- [02:05]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
It sounds like Carvana just makes it.
- [02:08]
Podcast Advertiser/Host
Easy to buy your car, Hank. Yeah, you're right. Case closed.
- [02:12]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Buy your car today on Carvana. Delivery fees may apply.
- [02:18]
Podcast Advertiser/Host
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- [02:59]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Hello, I'm Professor Susannah Lipscomb and welcome to Not Just the Tudors From History hit the podcast in which we explore everything from Anne Boleyn to the Aztecs, from Holbein to the Huguenots, from Shakespeare to samurais, relieved by regular doses of murder, espionage and witchcraft. Not, in other words, just the Tudors, but most definitely also the Tudors. 25th of May, 1660, England is exhausted. For more than a decade, the nation has endured grim austerity, Puritan rule, shuttered theatres, joyless Sundays and the empty promises of an order that delivered only shadows. The people are restless, weary, hungry for life again. And now, at last, change is coming. Ships crowd the waters of the English Channel. Aboard one of them, once called the Nazeby, but now renamed the Royal Charles in honor of its passenger, is a man who embodies the nation's hopes. Tall, dark haired, not yet thin, 30 years old, Charles Stewart has worn the title of king since boyhood, but never the crown. For more than a decade, he's been a monarch in exile, a sovereign without a throne. On this day, though, he's no longer Charles the Wanderer, no longer Charles the Pretender. Today, he is returning as Charles ii, King of England, Scotland and Ireland. Awaiting his arrival on the shore at Dover is General George Monk, the architect of Charles Return, ready to place the keys of power back into royal hands. Bells peal, bonfires blaze, crowds roar their welcome. After years of silence, England's long banished king steps once more onto his home soil. I'm Professor Susannah Lipscomb, and throughout this month on Not Just the Tudors from History hit, I'm exploring the lives and reigns of the kings and queens of the Restoration. In the last episode, I was joined by a panel of experts to discuss why Cromwell's republic failed. Do go back and listen to that, if you haven't done so already. But today, the Restoration proper gets underway with the most charismatic of Stuart monarchs, Charles ii. With insights from an array of historians drawn from our Not Just the Tudors archive, we'll discover how the so called merry monarch transformed a country starved of laughter into one that pulsed again with music, theatre and light. And in doing so, reshaped forever the delicate balance between Crown, Parliament and the people. The restoration of the British monarchy was not achieved by any royalist victory, but by the spectacular failure of republican government. When Oliver Cromwell, the man who'd ruled England, Scotland and Ireland as Lord protector, died in 1658, his son Richard proved utterly incapable of maintaining the iron grip his father had wielded over the nation.
- [06:32]
Dr. Kate Lister / Dr. Jonathan Healy / Dr. David Taylor
There's a series of very quick changes of government.
- [06:37]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Social historian Dr. Jonathan Healy.
- [06:40]
Dr. Kate Lister / Dr. Jonathan Healy / Dr. David Taylor
And you don't have to be particularly royalist after 12 months of political chaos to think, why don't we just go back to the system which has given us the stability for centuries? Why don't we just ditch all these experiments? And I think that's one of the problems with the way that we understand the Restoration. We see it as a big outpouring of relief and joy, and there were elements of that. But there's also a simple desire for stability. And that is particularly the case after the 12 months of chaos that followed Richard's resignation in early 1659.
- [07:12]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Richard Cromwell, nicknamed Tumbledown Dick by by his critics, lacked both the necessary military acumen and political cunning to hold the fragile republican state together. Within a year, he had resigned, leaving England in a state of near anarchy. And the Commonwealth, the republican government that had ruled since the execution of Charles I in 1649, was collapsing under its own contradictions. Where could England turn? We have this notion that Charles II comes back on this wave of population. Popular desire historian and author Miranda Maylands. But it's not really the case at all that, really, up until spring 1660, the view in the exiled court is of despair. When are they ever going to get to come back? Because the Stuart court really isn't in any of these conversations. It is out of sight, out of mind, and it is the republic that does for itself. They all fall out amongst each other. Charles II is actually very lucky. I think, in a sense, he's the beneficiary of that chaos. The reality was that throughout the years of the Commonwealth, royalists had never really gone away. There were some who continued to want a more monarchical system, because that's what they felt most comfortable with. Oliver Cromwell even approved of some of them, especially those who flocked to his banner. Among them Lord Broghill and Edward Montagu. Former royalists were even behind the failed initiative to try and crown Cromwell King in 1657. So, taking advantage of the chaos following Cromwell's death, it was these remaining royalists who began to woo Charles II back home. And most of them play a blinder, really, in the spring of 1660, because they transfer their allegiance subtly through coded letters to Charles ii and then they are the agents who help bring him back. And the argument they make, they try and say to Charles II will be very helpful to you and you can trust us because we're fundamentally monarchists. It's just that we vested our hopes for a while in the House of Cromwell, because that seemed the best choice and the only choice available to us. But now we'll help you. The unlikely architect of restoration was the pragmatic Governor of Scotland, General George Monck. He'd fought for Charles I, but later became one of Cromwell's most capable generals. Yet as England descended into chaos in late 1659, in Monck recognised that only the restoration of monarchy could prevent another Civil War. In January 1660, he marched his army south from Scotland in a carefully orchestrated movement that stunned the nation. He dissolved the ineffective rump Parliament, orchestrated the calling of a new convention Parliament and began secret negotiations with the exiled king. This Parliament, meeting for the first time in almost 20 years under relatively free conditions, found itself evenly split between former royalists and Parliamentarians, but united in one crucial the need for stable government. Meanwhile, from his residence in the Spanish Netherlands, Charles issued his Declaration of Breda on 4 April 1660, promising liberty of conscience in religious matters, pardons for nearly all of his former enemies except those who'd signed his father's death warrant and most importantly, a commitment to rule in cooperation with Parliament. The Declaration of Breda effectively sealed Charles restoration and by 8 May, Parliament had formally invited him to come home to reclaim the throne. But Charles journey to this moment had been long and perilous. The decade between Charles the first execution and Charles II's restoration had forged the character of the man who would now rule England. They were years of poverty, danger and desperate hope deferred. The darkest chapter had come in September 1651, after his defeat at the Battle of Worcester, the final crushing blow to royalist hopes. The young Charles had faced a death sentence if captured. A huge reward of £1,000 was offered for information leading to his arrest. What followed was six weeks of the most remarkable escape in English royal history. At three in the morning on the 4th of September 1651, Charles and a small group of loyal followers rode through the night to White Ladies Priory in Shropshire. There, the Pendrell family, ordinary Catholic tenant farmers, risked everything to shelter their fugitive king. They disguised him as a woodcutter, cutting his distinctive long hair and staining his face and hands with walnut juice. When parliamentary soldiers swept through the area, searching every house, Charles was forced to take refuge in an oak tree at Boscobel Wood for an entire Day. The 21 year old king perched in the branches of a bolided oak while Major William, careless watched enemy soldiers search the woods below them. At times they were so close, Charles could hear the soldiers voices. At nightfall, he returned to Boscobal House and hid in a priest hole, a secret compartment built to conceal Catholic priests during times of persecution. For six weeks, Charles secretly moved from safe house to safe house. Men and women, many of them Catholics who faced double danger of court, risked their lives and their families futures to shelter him. Charles would never forget their sacrifice. Years later, after his restoration, he would personally reward every person who had aided his escape. And he would recount the story in loving detail, never revealing a single name until it was safe to do so. When Charles finally reached the coast at Choramancy in Sussex, he escaped to France on 15 October 1651. But his exile was far from comfortable. For a time, France offered refuge. Charles mother Henrietta Maria welcomed him to her court in exile, and his cousin, the French King Louis XIV, provided a small pension. But in 1654, France and Commonwealth England settled their differences and Charles was suddenly unwelcome. He was forced to wander through Germany. His poverty became the talk of European courts. A king without money, without prospects, without power. In 1656, Spain finally offered him a lifeline, a small pension and residence in Bruges, Belgium, in exchange for military support against France and the Dutch. Through the Treaty of Brussels, Charles agreed to raise royalist forces to fight for Spain. His brother James, Duke of York, commanded these troops, Irish and English exiles who clung to the hope of eventual restoration. It was a humiliating position for a man who claimed three kingdoms, reduced to hiring out his services to foreign powers. But the years of wandering gave Charles something invaluable an intimate knowledge of his subjects and an appreciation for ordinary people that no other English monarch had ever possessed. He also learned flexibility, pragmatism and the art of survival, qualities that would serve him well when he finally regained the throne. When Charles set sail from the Netherlands on 23 May 1660, he left behind nearly a decade of such humiliation. Four days after his arrival at Dover, on 29 May, his 30th birthday, King Charles II entered London in triumph. John Evelyn, the great diarist, recorded the.
- [14:57]
Podcast Advertiser/Host
Scene with wonder, shouting with inexpressible joy, the way strewed with flowers, the bells ringing, the streets hung with tapestry, fountains running with wine.
- [15:10]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Early modern historian Dr. Claire Jackson.
- [15:13]
Dr. Kate Lister / Dr. Jonathan Healy / Dr. David Taylor
When he finally comes back to London in 1661, after years in exile, he is determined to have a huge canopy of celebration, of pageants and entry into London. Coinciding with the coronation. He chooses to have the coronation on St. George's Day, which isn't a saint's day calendar at this stage, but is still a sort of public holiday of great sort of popular significance. And that is, is widely seen as a huge success, that even if people can't get into the abbey itself, they can line the streets and they can take part in many of the other sort of festivities.
- [15:44]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Yet all the pageantry belied a fundamental transformation in the nature of the monarchy. It was a markedly different set of circumstances from when Charles II had been crowned before in Scotland a decade earlier.
- [15:57]
Dr. Kate Lister / Dr. Jonathan Healy / Dr. David Taylor
And that was because this was the first, first part of his attempt to try and reclaim his crowns after the civil wars and the ascendancy of the English Commonwealth. So he is crowned in Scotland at Scone in January 1651, 10 years before he has his English coronation. And they're very different. The Scottish coronation is organized by the Kirk Party, hardcore Presbyterians, representatives of the same party that had taken up arms against his father and that had opposed his father's religious reforms. So it is a very stripped down ceremony. There is no anointing with holy oil. Charles II does not have his crown placed on his head by a cleric. It's the leader of the party of Marcus of Argyll. And the sermon is a real homily on the precarity of a king's position and how he can be resisted at any point. By contrast, everything that Charles II then goes in for in London is much more traditional. It's about anointing with holy oil. It's about the parallels between Christ and Charles wandering in the wilderness during their exile, and it's all the ceremony. The two are quite an interesting contrast. And the interesting thing about the Scottish ceremony too, is that it is not just a Scottish ceremony in the minds of the Scottish Kirk Party leaders. They crown him, as they say, King of Scotland, but also of England and Ireland and euphemistically France.
- [17:15]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
The London coronation, by contrast, was a spectacular affirmation of restored monarchy. Charles rode in state procession from the Tower through the city to Whitehall. The next day he was crowned at Westminster Abbey in a magnificent ceremony. An entirely new set of crown jewels had to be created, as the previous regalia had been melted down during the Commonwealth years, their gold and jewels sold off to pay the republic's debts. This time, Charles was not hailed as a king ordained by divine right or enthroned after military conquest, but by parliamentary invitation. This distinction meant that from the very outset, Charles had to acknowledge Parliament as a co partner in government, rather than a mere advisory body. As king, he still retained significant powers, including command of two army regiments and an annual allowance of £1.2 million. But these were granted by Parliament, not assumed by God given authority. Parliament meanwhile, maintained control over taxation and legislation, while Charles retained executive authority and the right to call and dismiss Parliament at will. This arrangement, while sometimes tense, generally worked because both sides recognised the need for cooperation after the disasters of civil war and republican rule. Yet amid all the reconciliations, reconciliation and joy, Charles II could not bring himself to forgive and forget what had been done to his father. On 30 January 1661, he carried out a macabre spectacle of revenge. The bodies of Oliver Cromwell, Henry Ireton and John Bradshaw were exhumed from Westminster Abbey, subjected to posthumous execution by hanging, drawing and quartering and their heads placed on spikes above Westminster Hall. It was a chilling reminder that while Charles had promised general amnesty, those directly responsible for Charles I's death would face no mercy. Nine living men who had signed the King's death warrant were also hanged, drawn and quartered. In a public demonstration of restored royal authority. In May 1661, Charles II summoned what became known as the Cavalier Parliament, dominated by royalist gentry and Anglican clerics that would remain in session for almost 18 years. The longest Parliament in English history to that point. This Parliament proved indispensable to Charles domestic agenda, passing sweeping legislation to restore the Church of England's authority and to replenish royal finances. It was this assembly, more than any other, that shaped the early Restoration settlement, forging a compromise between crown and country even as it tightened the bonds of religious conformity. Over the next four years, Parliament enacted four statutes collectively known as the Clarendon Code, Named for the King's chief minister, the Earl of Clarendon. These laws defined the religious landscape of Restoration England, creating divisions that would come to haunt Charles reign. The Corporation act of 1661 required all municipal officials to swear loyalty to the Crown and accept Anglican rights, effectively purging town governments of religious dissenters. The act of Uniformity the following year expelled more than 2000 non conformist clergy ministers who refused to accept the Book of Common Prayer and Anglican liturgy, creating a permanent class of excluded Protestants. In 1664, the Conventicle act outlawed any religious gatherings of more than five people outside the established church church driving non conformist worship underground. And in 1665 the Five Mile act forbade silence ministers from coming within five miles of any corporate town, effectively exiling them from centers of influence. Together these measures cemented Anglican supremacy and deepened rifts. They revealed the central Tension of Restoration politics. While Charles favored religious toleration, his staunchly Anglican Parliament would repeatedly thwart his more generous impulses. Away from the religion and the politics, Charles had plenty to distract him. Having spent much of his exile at the French court of Louis xiv, Charles was swift to bring continental sophistication and liberal attitudes to the English court. No longer weighed down by the austerity and joyless puritanism of the Commonwealth years, London became a vibrant center of culture, entertainment and shocking debauchery. Charles was the merry monarch and Whitehall Palace a playground of pleasure. Gambling flourished, wit was prized above piety, and the theatres reopened with female roles on stage being played by women for the first time. Dr. Laura Engel is a specialist in British literature, theatre and performance theory.
- [22:16]
Dr. Laura Engel / Andrea Zuvich
Charles came back from exile, declared women could go on the stage, partially from his experience seeing actresses in continental Europe. His mother loved the theater and there was a lot of theater around him growing up, so the novelty of women on the stage and the idea that there were authentic female bodies performing these roles was a huge, huge attraction for audiences.
- [22:41]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Unlike his predecessors, Charles made himself visible and approachable to his subjects. He could be seen strolling through St. James's park, feeding his beloved spaniels, those long eared, silky coated dogs that would forever bear his name as King Charles Spaniels, a coterie of young rakes and libertines surrounded the king, slaking their thirst for gambling, drinking and sexual adventure. Led by the likes of the Earl of Rochester, here was a common culture where wit and pleasure were prized above duty. Court ladies too were encouraged to be intelligent, witty and sexually liberated, rather than passive and virtuous. In stark contrast not only to Cromwell's puritanism, but the earlier Stuart court culture. But aside from all the frivolity, Charles faced some pressing realities. His throne was shaky, his treasury was empty and his foreign position was uncertain. He needed legitimacy, allies and money. Almost as soon as he'd settled back into Whitehall, his ministers began to search for a suitable bride.
- [23:49]
Dr. Sophie Shorland
He's 30, so he needs to get on with it. He needs to get married, have an heir.
- [23:55]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Literature scholar Dr. Sophie Shorland.
- [23:57]
Dr. Sophie Shorland
His advisors are all sort of pestering him on the subject and they'd ideally like him to marry a Protestant, but he rejects the whole swathe of German princesses and duchesses because he says they're all dull and foggy, meaning fat. Those are all out, which makes it very awkward finding him a bride until the Portuguese ambassador comes along and says, we've got this bride. Pretty 24 year old how about it?
- [24:27]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Portugal was also in a vulnerable position. Barely two decades earlier, it had thrown off Spanish rule. After 60 years, Spain still refused to recognize Portuguese independence, and its armies loomed on the border. What Portugal needed was a powerful friend. And what better way to secure one than by marrying a royal daughter to a newly restored king? The choice that soon emerged in Catherine of Braganza, a quiet, devout Portuguese princess, might have seemed curious to the English court. Yet behind the demure figure of Catherine lay a kingdom rich in opportunity.
- [25:03]
Dr. Sophie Shorland
And to sweeten the deal, which is very, very important for Charles, they're offering an incredibly huge dowry of 2 million cruzados, which was about £300,000 at the time, or in today's market money, about £46 million. So it's absolutely huge. And Charles is always wanting to get money without having to go through parliament. So this is hugely attractive to him, and he's swayed. He says yes, and also in the dowry he is offered. Bombay, Nalman Bai and Tangier. At the time, they're not very bothered about Bombay. It's called a pestilential so swamp. But Tangier has the potential to control Mediterranean trade and is seen as a jewel in the diadem of England. So Charles decides on the marriage, is very excited about both Catherine's attractiveness and her dowry. He's slightly worried when a report reaches him that she might not be as attractive as he'd originally been led to believe. But then he sees a portrait. It's all fine. The marriage can go ahead.
- [26:12]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Charles's marriage to Catherine of Braganza offered lucrative trading privileges for English merchants in Portugal's colonial empire and new footholds in the world beyond Europe. And her dowy was a lifeline for a monarchy constantly short of funds. For Portugal, it was a guarantee of protection. England could check both Spanish and French ambitions. A delicate balancing act in the complex dance of 17th century diplomacy. The marriage in May 1662 quickly began to bear fruit. Tangier became a base for England's navy in the Mediterranean. And Bombay transferred to the English East India Company in 1668, became the seed from which the British Empire in India would grow. Then, of course, there was the matter of heirs. Charles needed a legitimate son to secure the Stuart line. But while the hope of children was a genuine part of the arrangement, the marriage was never solely about that. Catherine brought no political faction of her own, and her Catholic faith made her an awkward fit for Protestant England. Raised in a Portuguese convent and deeply pious, Catherine was ill equipped for the sexual liberality of the court. Her Marriage to Charles, while politically successful, was personally tragic. No one expected the King to curtail his avaricious sexual appetites in favor of domestic monogamy. His legendary amorous adventures had begun long before Catherine arrived in England. Charles's first great love had been Lucy Water, a Welsh woman he met in the HA in 1648, when both were just 18 years old. Their three year affair produced a son, James, born on 9 April 1649, making him Charles's eldest child. Though illegitimate, Lucy claimed they'd gone through a form of marriage which Charles would vehemently deny for the rest of his life. The question of whether Charles had secretly married Lucy would become politically explosive during the exclusion crisis of the late 1670s, when Protestant factions would argue that young James, raised Protestant and created Duke of Monmouth, should be recognised as Charles legitimate heir instead of the King's openly Catholic brother. Unlike previous kings, who might have maintained discreet liaisons, Charles flaunted his mistresses quite openly, even going so far as to house several of them in apartments within Whitehall palace itself, sometimes just steps away from the Queen's own chambers. The most influential of Charles lovers was Barbravilliers. She'd first met him during his exile in Brussels in 1659. Barb Bravilliers was notorious for her violent temper, her interference in state affairs and her extravagant demands for money, titles and property. Samuel Peeps, the great diarist, noted her tyrannical hold over the King, while John Evelyn condemned her as the curse of the nation. Andrea Zuvich is Barbara Villiers biographer.
- [29:07]
Dr. Laura Engel / Andrea Zuvich
She was always present and she was quite political as well. Well, In effect, she was the Queen and the wife of Charles II for the first two years at least. She definitely used that. People couldn't get to Charles II without going through her first. She was a sort of gatekeeper and she was increasingly powerful, much to the annoyance of Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, who found her to be dangerous because she wielded so much power over the King and was much more, in his opinion, malign influence over him. And he had spent so much time trying to raise Charles II into this monarchical position again and he found her a decided threat. She was pretty much like the male libertines of the the court. And that's another reason why she stands out. She behaved like the males. She would take her pleasure where she wanted, just as they did, but it was so different because she was a woman.
- [30:22]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Barbara Villier's relationship with Charles was stormy and possessive. When she discovered she was pregnant shortly after Queen Catherine's arrival, she had the child baptized twice, once by her husband, Roger Palmer, as his heir, and and again by Charles as the king's son. When Charles seemed reluctant to grant titles to their children, Barbara reportedly threatened to dash her son's brains out on the floor unless the king acknowledged him. Such theatrical displays were typical of Barbara, who combined genuine affection for Charles with a ruthless determination to secure her position and that of her children. When Charles attempted to force his new queen to accept Barbara Villiers and as one of her own ladies in waiting, the humiliation reduced Catherine to tears and threatened to destroy the marriage before it had properly begun.
- [31:10]
Dr. Laura Engel / Andrea Zuvich
Catherine didn't want Barbara to be her lady at all. She adamantly refused, and many courtiers sided with her. They said, oh, she's showing her strength. She's making sure that she's not going to take this. She's the new queen and she's going to have things her way. And many people were on her side for this. However, Charles brought Barbara to court one day, and there were many courtiers there, and he presented Barbara to his wife. She graciously welcomed Barbara, not knowing who this woman really was, until one of her Portuguese ladies bent over and said, this is his mistress. She was absolutely horrified. It affected her so much that she had a nosebleed and she started to have a tremendous row with Charles, and Charles simply wouldn't budge, and Catherine wouldn't budge either. But this is where Charles began to treat Catherine in a very unkind manner. He started being really cold towards her, and she was a very warm person. She needed love and affection. She had been brought up in a convention and she was very innocent, almost childlike in some ways, and she wanted to love her husband and she wanted him to love her, and he sided with his mistress and she didn't know what to do. And this constant coldness with which he treated her made her try to change her way of dealing with this situation. And she began to be nice to Barbara in private as well as in public. And the courtiers who had previously been in her favor thought that she had become weak and this was not really good for her. This was her first major crisis for Catherine, and she just didn't play it the way she could have.
- [33:13]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Around 1663, another beauty entered the scene. Francis Stuart, known as La Belle Steward. A distant relative of the royal family who'd been raised in France, Francis was by all accounts, breathtakingly attractive. But unlike Barbara Villiers, Francis refused to become the king's mistress, a decision that drove Charles to distraction. He became so infatuated with her that when Queen Catherine fell seriously ill in 1663, rumours circulated that he intended to divorce her and and marry Francis. Four years later, he was still considering the possibility of obtaining a divorce to make Francis his wife. In March 1667, Francis made her choice. She eloped from Whitehall palace with Charles Stuart, Duke of Richmond and Lennox, a fourth cousin of the King, and married him secretly in the country. Charles was furious at losing her and initially banished Richmond from court. But Francis, in time, remained on friendly terms with the King. Her refusal to compromise her virtue made her unique among the ladies of Charles court and earned her a measure of respect. Eventually, Queen Catherine learned to tolerate, if not accept, her husband's infidelities. But the constant public humiliation of his brazen affairs with other women created a deep well of private sorrow. Even more damaging was her inability to provide Charles with legitimate heirs. Despite several pregnancies, she was never able to carry a child to term. This failure had profound political implications, as it meant that Charles Catholic brother James would eventually inherit the throne, a prospect that would drive English politics into crisis.
- [34:54]
Dr. Kate Lister / Dr. Jonathan Healy / Dr. David Taylor
Dr. Claire Jackson Charles is unique, really, almost among British monarchs in fathering a large number of natural children and then dignifying them very publicly in a way that hadn't been done. They then became sort of alternative avenues of influence, but the one thing they couldn't do was secure him a succession. And for contemporaries who were hoping that the Restoration would bring this sort of return to the old ways and prosperity, by the time you've got through the great plague of 1665 and then the Great Fire of London in 1666, and then the Dutch raid on the Medway in 1667, and you've got this king, king who doesn't seem to be producing a lawful heir, but fathering all of these bastard children, you know, there's a real mood of disillusionment very quickly. By the end of the 1660s.
- [35:43]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Charles's roving eye meant that Barbar Villiers position as matrice on Titre, the King's principal mistress, was periodically under threat. Andrea Zuvich again.
- [35:52]
Dr. Laura Engel / Andrea Zuvich
And I think it was only until Louise de Cavoy showed up that Barbara's position was in jeopardy. And indeed, Louise did take over her position as Matre Santit, really. So the 1670s were to Louise what the 1660s had been for Barbara.
- [36:13]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Louise de Carai, created Duchess of Portsmouth, was Charles's most politically significant mistress. A French Catholic sent to England by Louis XIV with the explicit purpose of influencing English policy, Louise represented everything that Protestant England feared about foreign Catholic influence. Beautiful, sophisticated and calculating, she bore Charles a son who was created Duke of Richmond. But her presence at court was a constant source of political tension and anti Catholic sentiment. Many suspected, rightly, that she was a spy for the French king, reporting on English politics and encouraging Charles dependence on French subsidies. The actress Nell Gwyn, meanwhile, captured the King's heart with her natural charm and humor rather than political ambition. A former Orange seller at the Theatre Royal who became one of London's most celebrated stars, Nell was beloved by the public precisely because she seemed so genuine and unpretentious. Nell's famous retort when an angry mob surrounded her coach, mistaking her for the Catholic Louise perfectly captured Nell's wit and and her relationship with the people. Pray, good people, be civil. I am the Protestant whore. Unlike Barbara Villiers, grasping ambition or Louise's French sophistication now represented something authentically English, earthy, humorous and honest.
- [37:38]
Dr. Laura Engel / Andrea Zuvich
She was obviously one of many, so his relationship with her is both similar and different from his relationship with his.
- [37:46]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Other mistresses, Dr. Laura Engel.
- [37:49]
Dr. Laura Engel / Andrea Zuvich
He apparently showered a lot of attention on her. He set her up in a beautiful house in Pall Mall. Apparently there was a secret passage between Whitehall and her house that he used to visit her in the evenings occasionally. We don't know a lot about the specifics of what was said or how their first encounters went, but we do know that it was very intense and that he was captivated by her and remained captivated by her until the end of his life.
- [38:28]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Nell, though, was jealous that both Barbara's and Louise's boys had been elevated to dukedoms, while her own children had only lesser titles. Reportedly, she dangled her son out of a window, threatening to drop him unless the King granted him a title. Title. Charles, standing below, shouted in alarm. God save the Earl of Burford. Instantly creating a new peerage for another one of his illegitimate sons, who would later be elevated to the Duke of St Albans.
- [39:10]
Podcast Advertiser/Host
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- [40:25]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Hank.
- [40:25]
Podcast Advertiser/Host
What's going on?
- [40:26]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
We haven't worked a case in years.
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Podcast Advertiser/Host
I just bought my car at Carvana and it was so easy.
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Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Too easy. Think something's up? You tell me.
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Podcast Advertiser/Host
They got thousands of options, found a great car at a great price, and it got delivered the next day.
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Professor Susannah Lipscomb
It sounds like Carvana just makes it.
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Podcast Advertiser/Host
Easy to buy your car, Hank. Yeah, you're right. Case closed.
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Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Buy your car today. On Carvana, delivery fees may apply. As the saying goes, if these walls could talk. And on the Betwixt the Sheets podcast.
- [40:58]
Dr. Kate Lister / Dr. Jonathan Healy / Dr. David Taylor
We make it our business to discover what happened behind closed doors and even.
- [41:03]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
More importantly, in the bedrooms of people all throughout history. Kings, queens, mistresses, servants, and everyone in between. We also get up close and personal.
- [41:14]
Dr. Kate Lister / Dr. Jonathan Healy / Dr. David Taylor
With medieval aphrodisiacs, lethal Victorian makeup routines, and look at the scandalous lives of beloved children's authors.
- [41:22]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Nothing is off limits. In other words, it's the best bits of history.
- [41:27]
Dr. Kate Lister / Dr. Jonathan Healy / Dr. David Taylor
With me, Dr. Kate Lister, listen to.
- [41:30]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Betwixt the Sheets, the history of Sex scandal in society. Twice a week, every week, wherever it.
- [41:35]
Dr. Kate Lister / Dr. Jonathan Healy / Dr. David Taylor
Is that you get your podcasts brought.
- [41:37]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
To you by the award winning network History hit. If Charles personal conduct was unashamedly frivolous, his response to national crises revealed a more serious and capable monarch. The great plague, which struck in 1665, killed around 100,000 people, roughly a quarter of London's population. When Charles and his court fled to Oxford, his decision drew criticism. But arguably, that was standard practice for monarchs during outbreaks. But the following year brought a crisis that would test Charles leadership in full public view. In September 1666, when Samuel Pepys rushed to Whitehall to inform the king of the great fire that was spreading through London, Charles immediately sprang into action with an energy and decisiveness that surprised many observers. Rebecca Riddiel is an expert in restoration London.
- [42:41]
Rebecca Riddell
Charles, when he's informed, he. He puts the Earl of Craven in charge of the efforts to try and contain or combat the fire. And he does this because the most important and capable leaders at this time are actually at sea, because England is at war with the Dutch at this point in time. So the person that he ordinarily would have turned to would be George Monk. And he writes to him to recall him from the Navy, but it's impossible for him to come back in time. So Charles then puts his brother James, Duke of York, future James ii, in charge of the efforts as well. And James is a difficult and interesting man. He has a whole catalog of flaws, but one thing that he's good at is having a really dogged determination that people can follow quite easily. And he does do quite well in shoring up troops and making sure that there are bases around the city that are there to tackle certain parts of the fire. And Charles then goes out himself as well and he makes a big show, really helping in the physical effort to combat the fire too. What he does do as well, after the fire has finished, he makes sure that he gets a brilliant write up in the London Gazette about his efforts, which I just think is great because actually we do know that there were people outside of London that were thinking actually this fire could topple the Stewarts more than anything that had done before. And it absolutely had the possibility to. But we also know that there's nothing like a disaster to unite people as well.
- [44:12]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Charles threw himself into the firefighting efforts, standing just meters from the flames, apparently careless of his own safety in his determination to save his capital. This hands on leadership during the Great Fire won him enormous popular acclaim. Here was a monarch who, unlike his predecessors, was willing to get his hands dirty alongside his subjects in their hour of greatest need. The contrast with London's ineffectual Lord Mayor, who had initially dismissed the fire as so weak that, quote, a woman could piss it out could not have been more stark. But the public relations coup for Charles would not last because religious tension and the matter of who would succeed Charles was never far away. Rebecca Ril it was great PR for.
- [44:56]
Rebecca Riddell
Charles, but what he didn't realize was that his brother was just going further and further down a route that was not going to be helpful for England. Which was basically that, having said all of this about anti Catholic feeling within England, James in 1669 made a secret conversion to Catholicism. And it wasn't long before it became not so secret and caused huge issues which arguably led to what we refer to again, quote unquote as the Glorious Revolution.
- [45:31]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Having a Catholic wife and a Catholic brother did not bode well for Charles's Popularity anti Catholic sentiments in England continued to simmer beneath the surface. Catholics were blamed for starting the Great Fire with incendiary devices. Rumours entirely unfounded but widely believed. Of more concern was Charles growing alliance with his cousin Louis XIV of France. In 1670. Far from England's shores and shrouded in absolute secrecy, Charles concluded one of the most controversial agreements of his reign. The secret Treaty of Dover. The treaty had two versions, a public one and a secret one. The public treaty signed and December 1670 pledged English naval support against the Dutch in exchange for French financial subsidies. But the secret one contained an explosive additional clause. Charles agreed to publicly declare himself a Roman Catholic and to reconcile England with the Church of Rome as soon as the affairs of his kingdom permit. In exchange, Louis XIV promised £230,000 immediately and 6,000 francs French troops to help impose this conversion should English resistance prove violent. The timing of the declaration was left entirely to Charles discretion, a crucial escape clause that Charles would exploit by never actually fulfilling this promise during his lifetime. Though he did announce himself a Catholic on his deathbed. Had the secret treaty become public knowledge during Charles lifetime, the results would likely have been catastrophic. The king promising to convert to Catholicism and agreeing to French troops, imposing that conversion on his subjects might well have sparked another civil war. The secret French subsidies were desperately needed because Charles financial situation remained dire. On 2 January 1672, Charles issued a shocking proclamation suspending payment on all government debts for one year. This was in effect, a royal balance bankruptcy. The goldsmith bankers who had loaned money to the Crown expecting regular interest payments, suddenly found themselves unable to access their funds. Many were ruined. The move made it even harder for Charles to raise money through conventional means, increasing his dependence on French subsidies, exactly what Louis XIV had intended. Meanwhile, England formally entered the Third Anglo Dutch War between 1672 and 1670, dispatching fleets to blockade Dutch ports in support of Louis XIV's invasion of the Netherlands. The war went badly for England and despite some naval victories, Parliament's growing suspicion of Charles, French alliance and Catholic sympathies forced an end to hostilities by the war's conclusion. The costly conflict and repeated fiscal emergencies had made Charles ever more reliant on French subsidies and parliamentary grants, fuelling suspicion about his foreign loyalties and domestic intentions. On 15 March 1672, Charles proclaimed a declaration of indulgence, attempting to suspend all penal laws against Catholics and Protestant dissidents alike. Presented as an act of mercy and tolerance, Parliament saw it as a dangerous assertion of royal power and a thinly veiled attempt to Favour Catholics outcry in Parliament forced Charles to withdraw the Declaration in 1673 and to accept the Test act, which effectively barred Catholics from holding any civil or military office. The Act's most prominent victim was Charles brother James, Duke of York. He resigned as Lord High Admiral rather than comply publicly confirming what many had, that the heir to the throne was a Roman Catholic. The situation was not looking too promising for Queen Catherine either. When James declared himself a Catholic, it also led to calls for Charles to divorce Catherine and marry a Protestant princess who might bear him a legitimate heir, Sophie Shoreland.
- [49:30]
Dr. Sophie Shorland
When he declares that his religion is Catholicism, it instantly creates an issue and leads to calls for Charles to divorce Catherine. And in 1670, there's a really important divorce case between Lord and Lady Roos, which is the first divorce in England since the Reformation. And Charles is there every day watching this case, taking great interest and it's seen as maybe being a signal that he's willing to divorce Catherine. So this is a really difficult period for her. Eventually, Lord and Lady Roos do get divorced and this sort of triggers a bit of a domino effect of people calling for the King to get divorced. Charles does refuse, but the fact that he's almost flirted with the idea makes things very difficult for Catherine.
- [50:23]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Charles decision revealed both his political acumen and the fundamental tensions that remained unresolved from the Civil War period. To his credit, Charles showed an admirable personal loyalty to his his queen, even if it was politically inconvenient. But 1678 brought a further crisis. It was triggered by the Popish plot fabricated by Titus Oates and Israel Tong, which claimed to expose a Catholic conspiracy to assassinate Charles and place James on the throne. When Edmund Berry Godfrey, a magistrate who had taken Oates deposition, was found murdered, it seemed to confirm the conspiracy. Sophie shoreland.
- [51:03]
Dr. Sophie Shorland
And in 1678, the perfect opportunity arises when Edmund Berry Godfrey, a magistrate, is found, confusingly, both strangled and stabbed in a ditch. And this is the perfect opportunity for essentially a con man called Titus Oates to have his day in court. So he's a basically disappointed Jesuit and he comes forward and claims the whole thing is a Catholic plot and part of a wider plot to kill Charles ii, which immediately appeals to particularly Londoners, xenophobia. And they jump on the idea. Charles initially questions him and thinks maybe there is something in it. And this questioning by Charles really encourages Oates to implicate Catherine and that, you know, the Queen is plotting to kill Charles because of his mistresses, basically, and his terrible behavior. Charles immediately realizes what he's done, he's made this terrible mistake and implied that he wants Catherine out of the way and tries to row back, but by that time it's too late.
- [52:16]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
While Charles himself was skeptical of Oates claims from the start, and his personal interrogation of Oates revealed numerous inconsistencies in his testimony, Parliament and much of the nation were swept up in anti Catholic hysteria that threatened to tear the kingdom apart.
- [52:31]
Dr. Sophie Shorland
Once again, other claimants have come forward and it really becomes a kind of McCarthy esque witch hunt of any Catholics and anyone who's ever annoyed their neighbor. The hunt gets dangerously close to Catherine, but in a way it's quite lucky that this comes about 12 years into her reign. So she's already become quite popular with people through her way of presenting herself and she's very popular with nobility. She's an important diplomatic figure, has been very dutiful in her correspondence. She's really supported by war with the Dutch, which is quite a figure of patriotism. So compared to if you look at Henrietta Maria a generation earlier, Catherine is never assaulted herself, she's never really heckled and she is treated much, much better, even though it is dangerous for her and the country has lost its head essentially.
- [53:33]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
In this period, more than 35 Catholics were executed on trumped up charges during the Popish Plot hysteria, including five Catholic lords who were TR and condemned. Despite no credible evidence. The frenzy only subsided when Oates lies became too outrageous to sustain and witnesses began to contradict his testimony. But the fictional plot had lasting political consequences. It triggered a series of Parliamentary attempts between 1679 and 1681 to pass legislation barring James, Duke of York, from the succession, potentially in favour of Charles illegitimate Protestant son, the Duke of Monmouth, or even Charles Protestant nephew, William of Orange. Three successive parliaments attempted to pass exclusion bills. Charles response demonstrated the political skills he'd learned during his years of exile. He alternately compromised and resisted, dissolved hostile parliaments when necessary, and ultimately outmanoeuvred his opponents through a combination of patronage, strategic concessions and sheer stubbornness. The king's refusal to abandon his brother despite intense pressure, revealed a personal loyalty that was one of his most admirable characteristics. James was, after all, the only family member who'd shared Charles years of exile and danger, who had commanded royalist forces and risked his life for the Stuart cause. When Charles finally dissolved his last Parliament at Oxford in March 1681, effectively ending the exclusion crisis, he had preserved the hereditary principle of monarchy while demonstrating that he would not be bullied by Parliament into abandoning his fundamental principles.
- [55:19]
Podcast Advertiser/Host
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- [56:32]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Lunch was great, but this traffic is awful. Um, can we stop at a bathroom? Are you alright? And keep having stomach issues after eating, like diarrhea, gas and bloating, abdominal pain.
- [56:42]
Dr. Sophie Shorland
And sometimes oily stools.
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Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Sound familiar? Those stomach issues may actually be a pancreas issue called exocrine pancreatic insufficiency or epi. Creon pancrelipase may help manage epi. Creon is a prescription medicine used to treat people who can't dig normally because their pancreas doesn't make enough enzymes.
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- [57:30]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Epi and if Creon could help. From 1681 until his death in February 1685, Charles ruled without Parliament, the longest period of non parliamentary rule since his father's personal rule of the 1630s that had helped trigger the Civil War. But unlike his father, Charles II survived this period because he had learnt the arts of compromise and because French subsidies, promised by Louis XIV in exchange for keeping England neutral in European affairs, freed him from dependence on parliamentary taxation. In June 1683, news broke of the Rye House Plot, an alleged conspiracy to assassinate Charles and his brother James as they rode from Newmarket to London. According to informers, the conspirators planned to kill both Stuart brothers, triggering a general uprising that would establish a republic or place the Duke of Monmouth on the throne. Whether this assassination plot was real or exaggerated by government agents remains debatable, but Charles used it ruthlessly to crush his Whig opponents. The ensuing trials saw prominent Whigs condemned and executed. In total, 12 people were executed for their alleged roles in the plot. The Earl of Essex died in the Tower, officially a suicide, though rumors of murder persisted. The notorious Judge Jeffreys ruthlessly carried out Charles revenge on conspirators and other royal enemies. And the trials provided Charles with a pretext to govern without calling another Parliament. The Rye House Plot trials broke the back of Whig opposition and solidified the succession of James ii. They also revealed the darker side of Charles character, his willingness to use judicial murder to secure his political position, a trait he'd otherwise avoided throughout his reign. On the positive side, Charles II's reign saw remarkable achievements that laid the foundation for England's emergence as a major European power. His support for science and learning led to the founding of the Royal Society in 1616, which became a centre for the scientific revolution that would transform European thought. Men such as Christopher Wren and Isaac Newton flourished under royal patronage, creating innovations in architecture, physics and mathematics that would influence centuries of development. Colonial expansion was seen as another major achievement. The Restoration colonies New York and New Jersey seized from the Dutch in 1660, 1864, Pennsylvania and the Carolinas greatly expanded English territory in North America and created the foundation for what would eventually become the dominant English presence in the New World. The Navigation Acts, while often evaded, established the principle of mercantile control over colonial trade that would prove immensely profitable for England. Despite all of this, Charles II's reign was marked by significant failures that would have serious long term consequences. His financial dependence on France created suspicions about his loyalty to English interests and limited his freedom of action in foreign policy. The King's personal extravagance, particularly his spending on mistresses and their children, drained the royal treasury and created public resentment.
- [60:53]
Dr. Kate Lister / Dr. Jonathan Healy / Dr. David Taylor
And so one of the big problems he has throughout his reign is the question of whether his people are really loyal to him.
- [60:59]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
Dr. David Taylor he doesn't want to.
- [61:01]
Dr. Kate Lister / Dr. Jonathan Healy / Dr. David Taylor
Rule with Parliament, but Parliament is a necessary evil as far as Charles is concerned, because without Parliament, you can't raise taxes and therefore you can't gain funds. Charles ultimately signs a secret treaty with France in 1670 that guarantees him a staggering sum of money from France each year. So Charles is more or less being bankrolled by France. What France really want is for Charles to openly convert to Catholicism. Now, in fact, Charles does that on his deathbed and clearly is more or less a covert Catholic for most of his life. So France see funding Charles ultimately as a way of controlling him and of controlling Britain. Had this become public knowledge, there would have been another civil war. It would have been absolute political dynamite. So Charles is a king who can't behave like previous kings, who certainly can't behave as his father, Charles I have behaved. He doesn't have the power effectively. And there's this constant worry that the country might once again descend into civil war because the relationship between King and Parliament throughout Charles's reign remains very, very tense and at times unbelievably toxic.
- [62:06]
Professor Susannah Lipscomb
On 6 February 1685, when Charles II converted to Catholicism on his deathbed, he was finally acknowledging the faith he had secretly held for years. Father John Huddleston, a priest who had helped Charles escape after the Battle of Worcester 34 years earlier, was secretly brought to the royal bedchamber to receive the dying king into the Catholic Church. But Charles's last words were reportedly not for his own soul's salvation, but for his most popular mistress, Nell Gwyn. Let not poor Nelly starve, He's reported to have said it was characteristic of the King to think of his mistresses in his final moments, but also touching that he sought to protect the woman who loved him without political ambition or mercenary calculation. Charles II's death marked the end of an era, the last time an English monarch would rule primarily through personal charisma and political skill rather than constitutional constraint. England had been transformed from a war weary, religiously divided nation on the brink of collapse into a commercially expanding, culturally vibrant power with growing colonial ambitions. Perhaps most importantly, Charles had demonstrated that monarchy could survive and even thrive in the post civil War world. By adapting to the new realities of parliamentary power and public opinion. Charles charm, wit and flexibility allowed him to successfully navigate treacherous waters. But the same qualities that made him an effective king, his tolerance, his willingness to compromise, his reluctance to confront difficult decisions, also created the conditions that would destroy the reign of his brother James ii. We'll be finding out more about that in our next episode in this special series on the Restoration Monarchs. Thank you for listening to this episode of Not Just the Tudors From History Hit. And to my producer Rob Weinberg, we are always eager to hear from you, including receiving your brilliant ideas for subjects we can cover. So do drop us a line and Not Just the tudors@historyhit.com and I look forward to joining you again for another episode. Next time on Not Just the Tudors From History Hit.
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Professor Susannah Lipscomb
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Professor Susannah Lipscomb
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Professor Susannah Lipscomb
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Professor Susannah Lipscomb
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