Radiolab: "Nukes" (April 7, 2017) – Episode Summary

Overview

In this episode of Radiolab, hosts Jad Abumrad and Robert Krulwich, alongside reporter Latif Nasser, embark on a probing investigation into the question of who exactly holds the power to launch nuclear weapons in the United States—and what checks, if any, exist on that power. The episode traces the journey of Harold Herring, a missile launch officer trainee who decades ago asked a simple but dangerous question about safeguards against presidential misuse of nuclear authority. Through Herring’s story, the episode explores the evolving relationship between the military, the President, and atomic weaponry, ultimately interrogating whether humanity’s fate truly rests on the decision of a single individual.

Key Discussion Points and Insights

Harold Herring: The Man With the Question

[05:13–14:01]

• Background:
  • Harold Herring, a decorated Air Force pilot and Vietnam War veteran, entered missile launch officer training in 1973.
  • He was impressed by the technical safeguards in place at the crew level—dual-key operations, sidearms for mutual deterrence against rogue operators, etc.
• The Critical Question:
  • During training, Harold noticed a gap: extensive checks at the crew level, but an informational blackout about checks on the President’s authority to order a launch.
  • He asked: “Is there a safety net in place if the President is making a crazy decision?” ([12:18])
  • After being asked to put the question in writing, he submitted a letter expressing his concern about blind faith in a single individual:

    "I would be required to assign blind faith values to my judgment of one man, the president. Values which could ultimately include health, personality, and political considerations. This just should not be." – Harold Herring [13:25]

• Consequences:
  • His inquiry resulted in him being removed from training six days before graduation, stripped of clearances, and ultimately forced into early retirement ([26:22]).

Why Was the Question a Threat?

[31:45–35:19]

• Deterrence Doctrine:
  • The credibility of nuclear deterrence rests on the notion that orders will be executed without hesitation.
  • Former missileer Dr. Sonia McMullen explains:

    “If you start allowing people at the bottom to start making up their mind, then it’s not a credible threat.” – Dr. Sonia McMullen [32:55]

• The Official Response:
  • Strategic Air Command’s General Russ Dougherty argued that Herring’s "affirmative assertion was followed immediately by a personal subjective qualification," implying doubt undermines deterrence ([33:41–34:36]).
  • Herring refutes this:

    “No, no, no, no, I did not say that anywhere. Nowhere did I use those words. That doesn't surprise me.” – Harold Herring [34:36]

The President’s Nuclear Authority: Historical Evolution

[15:17–24:11]

• Truman Era:
  • The bomb was so new that Truman called the shots—civilian supremacy was paramount (e.g., only civilians had access to the plutonium cores) ([17:47]).
• Eisenhower's Shift:
  • Eisenhower, a former general, allowed more military discretion, especially for small atomic weapons, but retained civilian control for large-scale bombs ([19:29–20:26]).
• Kennedy and Locks:
  • After bomb-related accidents and lax overseas security, Kennedy implemented physical “permissive action links” (simple combination locks) on bombs to ensure Presidential control ([23:03]).
• Nixon and Eroded Trust:
  • Watergate and Nixon’s erratic behavior led to increased anxiety about unchecked presidential authority. Nixon once bragged:

    “If [I] wanted to, [I] could go into the other room, pick up a telephone, and in 20 minutes, 60 million people would be dead.” [24:56]

Modern Protocols and the Absence of a Check

[35:45–41:33]

• Chain of Command:
  • The President alone can order a nuclear strike; neither Secretary of Defense nor military leaders can override it.
    • Former Defense Secretary William Perry clarifies:

    “Nobody has the right to countermand that decision... He may call the Secretary of Defense for advice... but he may or may not accept that counsel.” [37:30]

• Decision Timeframe:
  • U.S. nuclear doctrine assumes the need for a decision within 6–7 minutes if incoming missiles are detected ([40:15]).
  • Dr. Bruce Blair, former missileer and nuclear command expert, says:

    “The system is set up so that only the President has the authority to order a nuclear war... He has the call directly to Strategic Air Command to do the launching, and they will respond to his orders.” [37:00–38:20]

• No Room for Deliberation:

  “The decision process just is too short for any kind of thoughtful or serious deliberation.” – Dr. Bruce Blair [40:16]

Calls for Reform: Legislative and Moral Dilemmas

[41:33–44:15]

• Proposed Solutions:
  • William Perry and others advocate for phasing out ICBMs in favor of slower weapons systems (e.g., submarines and bombers) to allow more time for deliberation ([41:47]).
  • Congressmen Ted Lieu and Senator Ed Markey introduced a bill requiring a congressional declaration of war before a presidential first strike ([42:20]).

    “The fate of humanity in our world should not rest on one person.” – Rep. Ted Lieu [42:57]

• The Dilemma:
  • The need for a credible deterrent conflicts with the desire for checks and balances to prevent catastrophic misuse.

    “There are two sort of values here. One is your humane interest in making sure that... the end of the world... is for a just reason... and the ongoing hope that by making this, our system, credible, that we will never have an end of the world.” – Robert Krulwich [44:15]

Personal Reflections and Legacy

[45:18–47:36]

• Harold Herring’s Later Life:
  • After his forced retirement, Herring became a truck driver and later an addiction counselor, distancing himself from nuclear issues.
  • He still feels his question “deserved an answer, for all of us, not just for me” ([47:08]).
• Lasting Anxiety:
  • The episode ends with the haunting knowledge that, to this day, launching nuclear missiles is ultimately the choice of a single individual, with as little as six minutes to decide.

The Human Cost: Marshall Islands Survivor’s Story

[55:28–59:15]

• Tony deBrum, Marshall Islands Ambassador:
  • Recounts witnessing the U.S. hydrogen bomb test (Castle Bravo, 1954) as a child:

    “It was as if someone had walked up to you with a flash camera and took a shot right inches from your eyes... I thought it was the end of the world.” – Tony deBrum [56:04–57:31] “Everything turned red. ... The effect was like you’re standing under a glass bowl and somebody poured blood.” [58:25]

  • His testimony reminds listeners of the raw and lasting trauma nuclear weapons have inflicted—not just hypothetical, but real.

Notable Quotes and Memorable Moments

• On Presidential Power:

  “He doesn’t have to check with anybody... He has that authority because of the nature of the world we live in.” – Dick Cheney [41:04]

• Historians on the System:

  “That the only area that there is not a check and balance is the one that can literally result in the end of the world. That seems strange to me.” – William Perry [41:33]

• Dilemma of Deterrence vs. Humanity:

  “That’s a dilemma. Yeah, you know, that’s a dilemma.” – Dr. Sonia McMullen [44:46]

Timestamps for Key Segments

• Harold Herring’s Story Begins: [05:13]
• The Question That Changed His Life: [12:18], [13:04]
• Presidential Nuclear Authority – Historical Evolution: [15:17–24:11]
• Nixon’s “60-million” Dead Comment: [24:32–24:56]
• Modern Protocol and Absence of Checks: [37:00]
• Former Defense Secretary on Presidential Authority: [37:30], [38:20]
• Decision Time Window: [40:15]
• Proposed Legislative Solutions: [42:01–42:57]
• Marshall Islands Testimony: [55:28–59:15]

Summary Table: Who Can Launch Nukes?

| Era | Civilian or Military Control? | Key Safeguard/Issue | |----------------|--------------------------------|-------------------------------------------| | Truman | Civilian (President) | Civilians controlled bomb cores | | Eisenhower | Loosened to Military (small) | Some military discretion for small nukes | | Kennedy+ | Civilian (President) | Locks on bombs, strict control | | Modern | Solely President | No effective external check, rapid launch |

Radiolab’s Tone and Style

In classic Radiolab style, the episode is inquisitive, dynamic, and sound-rich. The hosts’ bemusement, nervous laughter, and frequent asides highlight the unsettling absurdity and gravity of the topic. The storytelling is intimate, alternating between policy wonks, personal stories, and historical dramatics, all underscored by a commitment to journalistic rigor and human empathy.

Final Thought

The episode leaves listeners with a sense of unresolved tension: the technological, political, and existential dilemma that the world’s fate may hinge, at any moment, on the character and judgment (or lack thereof) of a single human being.

“I just felt that I had asked a very reasonable question that deserved an answer. And it was not for me alone. It was for all of us.”
— Harold Herring [47:20]