Radiolab Episode Summary: "The Skull"

Podcast: Radiolab (WNYC Studios)
Episode: The Skull
Date: May 15, 2014
Hosts: Jad Abumrad, Robert Krulwich
Notable Guests: Dr. Bernard Zipfel, Professor Lee Berger, Chris Stringer
Theme: Exploring the story of the Taung Child skull and its profound impact on our understanding of human origins.

Episode Overview

This episode of Radiolab takes listeners deep into the gripping story of a tiny fossilized skull known as the "Taung Child," discovered in South Africa in the 1920s. Through investigation and expert interviews, the episode unpacks how this single skull revolutionized our understanding of human evolution—shaking foundational beliefs of the scientific community, sparking fierce debates, and answering the ultimate mystery: how did the Taung Child live, and how did it die? The episode balances anthropology, true crime, and personal revelation, told in the show's signature lively, curious style.

Key Discussion Points & Insights

1. Discovery of the Taung Skull (01:55–06:27)

• The Vault: The skull is kept in a double steel vault at Wits University, Johannesburg. Dr. Bernard Zipfel describes handling it as "goose flesh every time" ([02:24]).
• Historical Backdrop: Its discovery in the 1920s Taung mine in South Africa, amidst mining blasts and geological curiosity ([03:28]).
• Fateful Shipment: Miners uncovered strange rocks and animal bones, which ended up in the hands of Raymond Dart, an Australian neuroanatomist. Remarkably, Dart, "wearing a three-piece suit," delays being best man at a wedding to open the box ([04:42]).

2. The Fossil: Key Observations (05:05–06:27)

• Child’s Face with Ape Brain: Dart recognizes a unique mix of features—humanlike face, smaller (ape-sized) brain ([05:23]).
• Bipedal Evidence: The placement of the foramen magnum (the hole where the spine enters the skull) underneath the skull, indicating upright, bipedal posture ([06:02]).
• Neither Ape nor Human: "It was not a monkey, it wasn’t an ape as we know apes... It was certainly not a modern human being" – Dr. Bernard Zipfel ([06:21]).

3. Scientific Resistance & Piltdown Fraud (07:12–10:16)

• European Bias: At the time, it was believed humans couldn’t have originated in Africa. Chris Stringer explains, "Africa was backward" ([07:43]).
• Piltdown Man Hoax: Piltdown Man, a "missing link" fossil found in England, shaped scientists' expectations—until it was revealed as a fraudulent concoction of an orangutan jaw and human skull ([09:39–09:56]).
• Vindication for Dart: Only after the Piltdown fraud unravelled did other fossils and the Taung Child gain acceptance, confirming Africa as humanity’s cradle ([10:16]).

4. What Can the Skull Tell Us? (10:27–13:06)

• Concrete Data: Date approx. 2–2.2 million years ago. Remains the oldest "not quite yet human" fossil ([10:16]).
• Significance: "Every human on Earth is an African. We are all of African origin." – Dr. Bernard Zipfel ([10:41]).
• Diet & Life: Tooth analysis reveals a diet similar to modern humans ([11:13]).
• Murder Mystery Angle: The condition of the skull and the find site suggest a violent end—the first step into a paleontological whodunit ([11:35–11:41]).

5. Hyenas, Big Cats… or Something Wilder? (11:41–15:16)

• Dart’s Theory: Influenced by wartime trauma, Dart proposed that the Taung Child was murdered by another hominid—laying the groundwork for myths of innate human violence ([11:46–12:29]).
• Predator’s Den: The skull’s repository, filled with many animal bones, hints at a large cat predator—"a perfectly acceptable way to go" ([12:57]).
• Lee Berger’s Eureka Moment: In 1994, observing eagles preying on monkeys, Berger realized raptors could be behind the Taung Child’s death ([13:42–15:16]).

6. Solving the Case: The Eagle Did It (15:16–18:15)

• Diagnostic Marks: Comparison of talon marks on monkey and baboon skulls in eagle nests to those on the Taung skull showed a match—a "keyhole-shaped" puncture ([15:16]).
• Confirmation: Eye socket scratches matched those described in eagle prey studies. Berger: "I went, oh my goodness... I turned the face over and there they were" ([17:25]).
• Scientific Pushback: The theory was initially met with skepticism—"received like a smelly, wet blanket" ([15:54]). Debates raged in journals about the capacity of birds of prey ([16:26]).

7. Deep Time Lessons & Evolutionary Echoes (18:15–19:04)

• Instincts from Deep Time: Berger connects our innate jumpiness when a shadow passes overhead to this evolutionary heritage: "You do that because the little Taung child died 2 1/2 million years ago because he didn't look up quick enough" ([18:54]).

8. Bringing the Skull Alive: 3D Prints & Museums (19:04–20:40)

• 3D Replicas: Radiolab collaborated with Makerbot and the Field Museum to create detailed 3D scans of the Taung Child skull ([19:04]).
• Museum Experience: Listeners can handle these replicas and tune into the story at NYC’s "Museum"—a tiny, oddities-focused gallery ([19:39–20:00]).
• Global Access: 3D files are available for download at Radiolab.org ([20:16]).

Notable Quotes & Memorable Moments

• "I handle this a lot, but I get goose flesh every time I take this out."
  – Dr. Bernard Zipfel ([02:24])
• "He actually went and got his wife’s knitting needles and started scratching away at this rock, much to his wife's disgust."
  – Professor Lee Berger ([05:05])
• "It was not a monkey, it wasn’t an ape as we know apes today. It was certainly not a modern human being."
  – Dr. Bernard Zipfel ([06:21])
• "Africa was backward."
  – Chris Stringer reflecting on scientific prejudice ([07:43])
• "Piltdown was a fraud... a fake, a forgery, a hoax."
  – Chris Stringer ([09:39–09:42])
• "Because it brought to the fore that humanity originated in Africa, that every human on Earth is an African. We are all of African origin."
  – Dr. Bernard Zipfel ([10:41])
• "Who killed the Taung child?"
  – Professor Lee Berger ([11:41])
• "I was staring at these images and I went, oh my goodness..."
  – Professor Lee Berger, realizing the eagle connection ([17:25])
• "You do that because the little Taung child died 2 1/2 million years ago because he didn't look up quick enough when that happened."
  – Professor Lee Berger ([18:54])

Timestamps for Important Segments

• [02:24] – Unveiling the Taung child skull
• [05:05] – Dart’s painstaking excavation
• [06:21] – Description: neither modern human nor current ape
• [07:43] – Prevailing scientific views on Africa and Piltdown Man
• [09:39–09:56] – Exposure of Piltdown Man as a hoax
• [10:41] – "Humanity originated in Africa" revelation
• [11:41] – "Who killed the Taung child?" – The murder mystery begins
• [13:42] – Lee Berger’s witnessing of an eagle attack
• [15:16] – Discovery of matching eagle talon marks
• [17:25] – Discovery of the eye socket marks
• [18:54] – Evolutionary roots of fear: "looking up" at shadows
• [19:04]–[20:40] – 3D-printed skulls & interactive museum exhibit

Conclusion

"The Skull" is a thrilling leap through time and science that manages to make the Taung Child's ancient life and death feel immediate, relevant, and profoundly human. The episode artfully connects evolution, prejudice, detective work, and the tangible resonance of holding a story in your hands—literally—through a 3D-printed skull.

Want to hold the story? Download a 3D scan of the Taung Child skull at Radiolab.org. Handle the past. Listen. Look up.