The Romanovs

Summary

Short History Of...: The Romanovs
Host: John Hopkins | Release Date: May 18, 2025

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Introduction: The Dawn of a Dynasty

The episode opens with Russell E. Martin, Distinguished Professor of History at Westminster College, setting the stage in 1613. He describes the selection of Michael Romanov as Tsar during the tumultuous Time of Troubles, a period marked by political chaos, famines, and foreign invasions ("[00:35] Russell E. Martin"). Michael's reluctant ascent to the throne marks the beginning of the Romanov dynasty, which would rule Russia for over 300 years.

Early Romanovs and the Time of Troubles

Russell Martin delves into the origins of the Romanov family, tracing their lineage back to the 14th century. The dynasty's connection to the Russian crown began with Anastasia, Ivan the Terrible's wife, in 1547 ("[06:56] John Hopkins"). Following Ivan's death in 1584, Russia descended into the Time of Troubles until Michael Romanov was elected Tsar in 1613 ("[07:32] Russell E. Martin"). Despite his mother's initial reservations about accepting the throne ("[08:04] John Hopkins"), Michael successfully restored order to Russia.

Peter the Great: Architect of Modern Russia

The narrative shifts to Peter the Great, Michael's grandson, who emerges as a transformative figure. Born in 1672, Peter ascends to power amid court intrigues and conflicts over succession ("[07:32] Russell E. Martin"). After quelling a rebellion led by the Streltsi and overthrowing the influential regent Sophia, Peter co-rules with his brother Ivan V before consolidating power solely by 1696 ("[10:15] John Hopkins").

Russell Martin highlights Peter's Grand Embassy, a pivotal journey to Western Europe where he immerses himself in shipbuilding, military tactics, and government structures ("[11:50] Russell E. Martin"). Inspired by his experiences, Peter reorganizes the Russian military, establishes the Semyonovsky and Preobazhensky Guards, and builds the formidable St. Petersburg, signaling Russia's emergence as a modern European power ("[13:09] Russell E. Martin"; "[13:51] John Hopkins").

Catherine the Great: Enlightenment Meets Autocracy

In 1762, Catherine the Great rises to power through a calculated coup against her husband, Peter III. Russell E. Martin details Catherine's strategic maneuvers, including her alliance with Grigory Orlov and the swift execution of the coup ("[23:16] John Hopkins"). Catherine's reign is characterized by significant territorial expansion, cultural patronage, and attempts at legal and political reforms inspired by Enlightenment ideals ("[34:56] Russell E. Martin").

Notable Quote:
"Catherine's adoption of Western values even makes it into the Russian wardrobe... She forces those around her to follow her Western ways." — John Hopkins ([18:55] John Hopkins)

Despite her progressive ambitions, the Pugachev Rebellion in 1774 forces Catherine to abandon some reforms and align more closely with the nobility ("[34:56] Russell E. Martin"). Her efforts to modernize Russia are a blend of liberalism and autocracy, leaving a lasting yet complex legacy.

Succession and the Later Romanovs

The episode continues with the succession struggles following Catherine's rule. Paul I, her son, inherits an empire on the brink of change but meets a short-lived and unstable reign ending in his assassination in 1801 ("[36:10] Russell E. Martin"). His son, Alexander I, plays a crucial role in the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte, solidifying Russia's status as a dominant European power ("[37:53] John Hopkins").

Alexander's successor, Nicholas I, continues the autocratic tradition, suppressing liberal movements like the Decembrist revolt ("[41:23] Russell E. Martin"). His son, Alexander II, known as the Tsar Liberator, attempts to modernize Russia further by abolishing serfdom in 1855, though his reforms are deemed insufficient by many and he is assassinated in 1881 ("[41:23] Russell E. Martin").

Nicholas II: The Fall of the Romanovs

The focus shifts to Nicholas II, the last Tsar of Russia, whose reign is marred by political incompetence and resistance to necessary reforms ("[37:53] John Hopkins"). The episode outlines key events leading to the dynasty's demise:

1. Bloody Sunday (1905): A peaceful protest is violently suppressed, killing around 1,300 people and eroding Nicholas's legitimacy ("[37:53] John Hopkins").

2. Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905): Russia's defeat intensifies domestic discontent and highlights military weaknesses ("[31:00] Russell E. Martin").

3. World War I (1914-1918): Nicholas's direct involvement in military command leads to disastrous defeats and exacerbates national crises ("[45:26] John Hopkins").

Rasputin's Influence: The mystic Rasputin gains undue influence over Tsarina Alexandra, especially in matters concerning their hemophiliac son, Alexei. His assassination in December 1916 by discontented nobles reflects the growing turmoil within the monarchy ("[47:30] Russell E. Martin").

Notable Quote:
"With the country suffering heavy losses, high inflation and severe food shortages worsen the grinding poverty that most Russians already endure by this point." — John Hopkins ([46:33] Russell E. Martin)

The Execution of the Romanovs

As the February Revolution of 1917 unfolds, Nicholas II abdicates, leading to the provisional government. However, Bolshevik forces seize power in October 1917. The Romanov family is relocated to Yekaterinburg and ultimately executed in July 1918 to eliminate any possibility of monarchist restoration.

Russell Martin recounts the brutal and poorly planned execution, highlighting the sadistic efficiency of the Bolsheviks and the dynasty's tragic end ("[53:36] John Hopkins"). The aftermath sees the transformation of Russia into the Soviet Union, marking the end of three centuries of Romanov rule ("[55:52] Russell E. Martin").

Legacy of the Romanovs

The episode concludes by reflecting on the Romanovs' complex legacy. They symbolize both the oppressive autocracy and the tragic downfall resulting from political upheaval. The enduring myths, such as the Anastasia survival rumors, underscore the dynasty's lasting impact on Russian cultural memory ("[57:32] Russell E. Martin").

Notable Quote:
"Russia is in constant motion. Like all societies really, it's making itself right now... when it comes to Russia, nothing is etched in stone." — John Hopkins ([58:00] John Hopkins)

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Conclusion

The Romanov dynasty's rise and fall encapsulate the broader transformations of Russian society from a fragmented medieval state to a modern empire and finally to a revolutionary republic. Their story is one of power, reform, conflict, and ultimate tragedy, leaving an indelible mark on the history and culture of Russia.

Upcoming Episode:
Russell E. Martin previews the next episode on Alfred Hitchcock, promising insights into the legendary filmmaker's storytelling prowess and enduring influence on modern cinema ("[59:05] Russell E. Martin").

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Key Takeaways:

• The Romanovs governed Russia during periods of significant transformation, balancing autocracy with occasional progressive reforms.
• Key figures like Peter the Great and Catherine the Great were instrumental in modernizing Russia, albeit through often ruthless methods.
• The dynasty's decline was precipitated by internal strife, ineffective leadership, and the pressures of global conflicts.
• The tragic end of the Romanovs symbolizes the end of imperial Russia and the beginning of Soviet rule.

Notable Quotes with Timestamps:

1. "Being tsar may be great, but remaining tsar is tough, and she thought that she needed to say no." — John Hopkins ([08:04] John Hopkins)
2. "Catherine's adoption of Western values even makes it into the Russian wardrobe... She forces those around her to follow her Western ways." — John Hopkins ([18:55] John Hopkins)
3. "Russia is in constant motion. Like all societies really, it's making itself right now... when it comes to Russia, nothing is etched in stone." — John Hopkins ([58:00] John Hopkins)

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This summary provides a comprehensive overview of the podcast episode "The Romanovs" by Noiser, capturing the essential discussions, insights, and historical narratives presented by John Hopkins and Russell E. Martin.

Transcript

[John Hopkins]

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[Russell E. Martin]

It is the dead of night on March 13, 1613, around 200 miles northeast of Moscow. The little town of Kostroma is sleeping. All is quiet within the walls of the Ipatiev monastery, a peaceful rural refuge on the banks of the Kostroma River. But the arrival of some unexpected visitors is about to break the tranquility. A 16 year old boy, Michael Romanov, starts up in bed at a sudden knocking at the door. His mother is up before him, rushing to answer it. In the corridor, a flickering candle lights the anxious face of a monk who explains that a delegation has arrived from the capital demanding to speak with them. Michael cows behind his mother, the tick in his eye triggered by this sudden disturbance. She is fiercely protective of her sickly son, who has already lived through so much. It is a dangerous time to be in line for the throne amid never ending battles over succession. Michael's father is being held in captivity in Poland and several of his uncles have been murdered. While the pair live in this monastery as fugitives, death squads are hunting for them. At the very least, her son needs sleep, so she dispatches the monk with a message that they will meet with the visitors in the morning, but the following hours bring little rest. At dawn they rise and dress for the freezing temperatures outside, with Michael in formal fur lined robes and a sable trimmed hat, his legs even more unsteady than usual. They make their way through the candlelit corridors of the monastery and out onto the snow covered courtyard. But waiting for them at the gates is no death squad, but a formal procession. As the group of nobles known as boyars and Orthodox bishops reach them, they bow low at Michael's feet. One of them addresses him as sovereign Lord and explains that an assembly of the land has picked him to be Tsar and Grand Prince of all Russia. There is a moment of uncomfortable silence. Michael glances at his mother who wipes away angry tears, her face pale with fear. She has already seen what the throne of Russia can do to men. In a voice that trembles with fury, she says that her son has no wish to be Tsar. Before the group of men has time to respond. She takes Michael by the arm, turns on her heels and marches off to the monastery's church, closing the door firmly behind them. By now, the priests have begun their matins, and Michael and his mother take a moment to pray. In this gloomy refuge, his gaze falls upon the golden glow of the Altus icons. Young though he is, he understands that respite will only be brief. The throne of Russia is not an offer one can refuse. But what he can't know is that when he does accept, he will be the first of 18 Romanov tsars who will reign over the land for the next 300 years in a saga of dramatic highs, brutal lows and ultimately tragic destruction. In their centuries long dynasty, the Romanovs oversaw the transformation of Russia from a fragmented medieval state into a vast empire. Though the reign began with a reluctant teenage Tsar chosen to end the Time of Troubles, it reached its zenith under rulers such as Catherine the Great. Theirs was a period plagued by violence, assassinations and their heavy hand of autocratic rule. And by 1917, the course of Russian history took an irreversible turn, changing the fate of the Romanovs forever. But what do we know of how their lives were lived? And how did they compare with the lives of ordinary Russians under their rule? Was it possible for monarchs such as Catherine the Great to balance Enlightenment ideals with absolute power? And did any of the family survive the assassination in 1918? I'm John Hopkins and from the Noiser Network. This is a short history of the Romanovs. The Russia of Michael Romanov's ancestors is a society of deep social division. While the Orthodox Church stands as a unifying force deeply woven into the national identity. The country's rigid feudal system keeps the underclass of serfs bound to the land with little personal freedom, leaving the noble families who profit from them to vie for power. In 1584, the death of Ivan the Terrible leaves the country in a state of turmoil and uncertainty. Though his brutal reign expanded the Russian state, his oppressive policies and erratic rule also weakened its stability. And though it will be some time until they emerge as the ruling dynasty, the Romanov's connection to the crown can be traced to Ivan's wife. Russell E. Martin is Distinguished professor of History at Westminster College in New Wilmington, Pennsylvania, and author of several books, including the Tsar's Happy Occasion, Ritual and Dynasty in the Weddings of Russia's Rulers.

[John Hopkins]

The Roanovs were a very old, distinguished servitor family inside the Moscow principality, getting back really to the 14th century, even a little bit before. But the real beginning, the Real launching pad for the Romanovs was in 1547, when Anastasia, one of the members of this lineage, becomes the first wife of Ivan the Terrible and the mother of his children, including the last tsar of the old dynasty.

[Russell E. Martin]

Soon after Ivan's death, Russia spirals into what becomes known as the Time of Troubles. Marked by political chaos, famines, and foreign invasions. It's a period that almost brings the nation to collapse, until at last, Zemsky Sobo, the Assembly of the Land, elects Michael Romanoff as Tsar in 1613. But when the delegation arrives at the Ipatiev monastery, Michael's protective mother responds with a firm nyet.

[John Hopkins]

The accounts really say that she was the one who expressed reservations. Michael, 16, he doesn't play much of a visible role in this moment, yet she is the one who has an awareness of the dangers that every tsar that has come in gone has not ended well. And why would I want my son to do this? Being tsar may be great, but remaining tsar is tough, and she thought that she needed to say no. But at the end of the day, she's prevailed upon. After several attempts, and Michael is received as the new tsar.

[Russell E. Martin]

Despite his mother's initial reservations, Michael I manages to restore order to Russia. But it is his grandson, Peter the Great, who transforms Russia from a traditional medieval state into a modern European power. Born in 1672, Peter is just 10 years old when his father dies. But as his late father's son from his second marriage, his path to the throne is not straightforward. The boyars have to make a decision about who will succeed Peter or his older half brother, Ivan.

[John Hopkins]

Ivan has disabilities, learning disabilities, and the boyars sitting around in the court realize this and decide to jump over him and pick Peter instead. The problem is, and this is interesting, Alexei has married twice, and his first wife's family has a faction, and the second wife's family has a faction. And they're really at odds with each other. And so to pick Peter is not just to pick the more healthy son, it's to pick a different faction. And that fact produces a kind of revolt inside the city of Moscow.

[Russell E. Martin]

At the height of the revolt, a mob storms into the Kremlin, led by the Streltsi, or Musketeers, the military corps that provide the Tsar's bodyguard. Peter's mother is forced to come out to meet the rebels holding the hands of the brothers to prove that both are still alive. This calms things, but only temporarily. In a second wave of violence, the rebels seize the family's closest advisors and throw them over the palace stairs where they are impaled on raised pikes. It is a scene that leaves Peter with a loathing of Moscow and the Streltsi for a long time. Eventually it is decided that the boys will become co rulers, Peter I and Ivan V. Ivan V, the family of.

[John Hopkins]

The first wife, has a very, very powerful, influential, able sister whose name is Sophia. And she manipulates things. She becomes the regent and she stands behind Ivan V. And she really doesn't know what to do with Peter. So what she decides at length is to send him off into a town near Moscow, basically an honorable exile. He's dragged back to Moscow whenever he needs to appear and then sent right back. And the idea would be to have Ivan V have children and then remove Peter altogether from the scene.

[Russell E. Martin]

From 1682 to 1689, Peter and his mother live outside Moscow. But rather than proving a punishment, Peter makes use of the freedom to pursue his own interests. An intelligent, vigorous child, he enjoys mathematics, carpentry, metalwork and printing. A model fortress is built for his amusement and he creates military games, recruiting his friends, the sons of various Russian nobles, into his make believe troops. In January 1683, aged 11, Peter orders uniforms, banners and wooden cannons for his toy army from the government. Later that year, the wooden cannons are replaced with real ones.

[John Hopkins]

Begins playing army only he's the czar, so he gets real live ammunition and it's an amazing spectacle. And he brings in foreigners from the German quarter to teach him how to run and organize a modern ammunition in his day army. So in a way, what might have been the beginning of his end turns out to be the very thing that makes who he is and therefore leads to the transformation of Russia itself.

[Russell E. Martin]

These armies become the basis of the Semyonovsky and Preobazhensky guards, the latter taking its name from Peter's village home. Over time, both regiments will become the nucleus of a new Russian army. But as Peter will later proclaim, a ruler with only an army has one hand, but he who has a navy has both. The discovery of an abandoned sailboat in a shed whets the Tsar's lifelong appetite for seafaring. Although Russia is territorially a huge power, it doesn't have a major seaport. Peter determines to change that.

[John Hopkins]

Peter has to be looked at as this strapping young man. He grows up to be 6ft 7 inches tall, very vital, very healthy, smart, energetic, inexhaustible everything he does, and ruthless. He has ideas about what he wants to do.

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[Russell E. Martin]

1689, at just 17, Peter uses the troops he has drilled since childhood and the boyars who have had enough of Sophia's rule to overthrow her, banishing her to a convent. When ivan dies in 1696, Peter takes full control. He now embarks on what becomes known as his Grand Embassy, a gap year in Western Europe. He studies shipbuilding in the Netherlands, military tactics in Prussia and government structures in England. In London, he hangs out with shipbuilders in Deptford, where he develops a taste for pepper flavored brandy and wheelbarrow racing. Though he's the owner of a keen mind and voracious curiosity about the world, Peter never tames his wilder side. But his European adventure comes to an abrupt halt when he is called back by an emergency at home. A group of Streltsi soldiers have plotted against him with the alleged aim of restoring Sophia to power. Peter crushes the rebellion with an iron fist, executing thousands of the Streltsi, whom he has never forgiven for the vicious murders he witnessed as a child. The threat quelled for now, Peter puts what he has learned on his travels into action. He reorganizes Russia's military and, hiring European shipbuilders, creates a modern navy for which he soon finds a purpose. In 1700, he launches the Great Northern War against Sweden, seeking that long desired access to the Baltic Sea. The military base he establishes will become known as St. Petersburg, a grand new city.

[John Hopkins]

It is reforms that create a new administrative structure, provincial structure inside of the Russian Empire and Perhaps in the most glittering way, the city of St. Petersburg itself, which is a showcase of monarchy. It's a showcase of all the best parts and worst parts of what Russia is. This city of palaces and churches and broad straight boulevards, of theaters, museums, canals. And at the same time, we know that it was built on the bones of the people that were dragged there to build it.

[Russell E. Martin]

St. Petersburg becomes Russia's new capital, the official home for the future Romanovs. Peter also now commissions the Grand Peterhof palace outside the city, modeling it on The French Louis XIV's palace of Versailles. And his fondness for all things European doesn't stop there. After divorcing his first Russian wife, with whom he has a son, Alexei, he weds a Prussian woman from modern day Germany, with whom he has several more children. Soon his adoption of Western values even make it into the Russian wardrobe. The traditional Russian robes or caftans are abandoned in favor of shorter coats, wigs and tricorn hats. He even introduces a beard tax to encourage men to move towards a more European clean shaven look.

[John Hopkins]

He was actually fascinated by science, technology and the cultural fashions, the cultural ways of the West. Begins to dress like a Westerner, groom like a Westerner, and he forces those people around him or invites them they're going to be talking about to follow him. In these Western ways. Peter's unlike any other ruler I think that you could find in the history of monarchy. He transforms Russia and the monarchy in fundamental ways.

[Russell E. Martin]

But he also upsets the aristocratic status quo with his introduction of a table of ranks, allowing individuals to rise based on merit rather than noble birth. Though his policies face resistance, he firmly enforces them, determined to pull Russia into a new era. Some say that this clash between the old and the new lies at the heart of Peter's fallout with his eldest son. Alexei opposes his father's reforms and seeks support among conservative nobles and foreign allies. Fearing rebellion, Peter forces his firstborn son to renounce his claim to the throne. In 1716, Alexei flees to Vienna. But Peter has him captured and returned to Russia with assurances he won't be punished. But it's a promise he will soon break. After a brutal interrogation and alleged torture, Alexei is convicted of treason and dies in prison, likely from his injuries. It marks one of the darkest moments of Peter's reign. Despite this nadir in his personal life, Peter's time as tsar tends to be seen as successful. And when the war against Sweden is finally won in 1721, Russia emerges as a dominant force in Europe. Peter is declared imperator or emperor by the Senate, and becomes known by the title by which history will more commonly know him, that of Peter the Great. But with Alexei gone, Peter has to consider the delicate issue of succession before his own death.

[John Hopkins]

One of the most important consequences of the whole Alexei episode was that in 1722, Peter promulgates Russia's very first law of succession. It really was a non law because what it says is that the tsar, he himself, or any of his successors have the right to pick who the next tsar, or by this point, I really should say emperor, who the successor is going to be doesn't have to be Roman. Avi could be anyone. It really does explode the entire notion of a dynasty.

[Russell E. Martin]

When he dies in 1725, Russia is no longer an isolated kingdom, but a major European power with a strong military, a thriving economy and a new capital. But his law of succession also opens the door for newcomers, even foreigners, to take the throne. Russia once again experiences a period of instability until Peter's daughter Elizabeth becomes Empress in 1741. Though she has no children of her own, Elizabeth is keen for her nephew Peter, next in line to the throne, to marry well. Soon the perfect candidate is found. Born in what is now Poland, Sophie Frederika Augusta von Anhalt Sebst is daughter of a minor German prince. After being received into the Russian Orthodox Church for her marriage in 1745, she changes her name to Catherine. Today she is better known as Catherine the Great.

[John Hopkins]

Catherine is one of the most interesting people in world history. She was born a German princess, the daughter of the ruling prince of Anhalt Zerbst, which is in central Germany. And she was the second cousin of her eventual husband, Peter iii, who is the grandson of Edith the Great. Catherine was born something of a tomboy, known as a strong personality, even in her youngest years, well educated and earmarked by her father for a very advantageous marriage, he saw in his daughter a very appealing addition to the European royal marriage market. And so the Russian marriage was more than he really could hope for. But she was brought to Russia in 1744 to marry the man who would be tsar, not to be the empress herself.

[Russell E. Martin]

Prodigiously intelligent and a voracious reader, Catherine throws herself into learning Russian and understanding the people, religion, culture and history of her adopted country. The young princess also has a keen interest in Enlightenment philosophy, particularly the ideas emerging from France. At a time when Voltaire, Rousseau and others are promoting the ideals of reason and progress and challenging traditional systems of authority, Catherine finds inspiration in their work. An interesting position for the wife of the future Tsar. At court, she uses her charm to make friends and find lovers. Though throughout her life her sexual appetite and particularly certain notorious rumors about a horse are exaggerated or fabricated entirely. Though her marriage to Peter is far from a happy one. She gives birth to a new Romanov heir, Paul, in 1754, despite the rumors that another of Catherine's lovers is the father. When Empress Elizabeth dies in 1762, Catherine feels vulnerable. With her husband already having taken a mistress, the risk of being sent away is no small consideration, especially as Catherine herself is becoming increasingly popular among certain factions at court. Conversely, Peter's own reforms are met with somewhat mixed approval. His efforts to modernize the army with Prussian style drills, uniforms and organizational structures are largely hated by the military itself. And his decision to exempt the nobility from military service does not does him no favors. Among those who don't directly benefit, tensions between him and his clever wife reach boiling point. With the help of her lover, Grigory Orlov, a Russian officer, she begins to make plans to usurp her husband. And with Peter out of town, the arrest of one of her co conspirators forces her to seize the moment. It is 6am on June 28, 1762, in the palace of Peterhof near St. Petersburg. The 33 year old Catherine II is dressing rapidly, all in black. A small woman with with striking auburn hair and piercing blue eyes, she hurries down the steps of the palace to her awaiting carriage. Its driver whips the horses to make haste to St. Petersburg. It's only partway through the journey that Catherine realizes she's still wearing her nightcap. She tears it off. There is just time to stop briefly to pick up her French hairdresser who immediately gets to work. It's important to look your best when overthrowing your husband, the Tsar. Close to the city, the carriage stops again to hand Catherine over to another vehicle bearing her lover, Grigory Orloff. Together they reach the barracks of the Izmailovsky Guards and Orlov offers his hand to his mistress as she gets out of the vehicle. It's still quiet. There are just 12 soldiers and a drummer, but they are delighted to see Catherine. One by one they pledge their loyalty, kissing Catherine's hands and feet and touching the hem of her dress. Before long, other regiments arrive and pay similar tribute to their new leader until the place is packed with loyal soldiers. Next, Catherine returns to her carriage to make her way to the Winter palace nearby. Inside, she finds dozens of senators and generals already assembled to issue a manifesto in support of her. She glances at Orlov. It's happening. Picking her way through the packed corridors, she thanks her supporters for their loyalty. By the time she reaches the balcony, word has spread and a crowd has gathered outside to prove that she now has the support of the people as well as the troops. From her elevated position, Catherine can see that some of the soldiers on duty have shed the hated new Prussian style uniforms introduced by her husband and are instead wearing their old style Russian tunics. She asks for a uniform of her own and is given one of the dark green coats of the Preobrazhensky Guards before ordering the men to assemble in the palace square for their march against Peter. Doing up the last of the buttons of her uniform, Catherine strides out into the square and mounts her gray thoroughbred. Brilliant. She surveys the mass of troops whose ranks have swollen from 12 to 12,000. It is time to march against her husband. As Catherine's army advances through the night, a couple of horsemen are sent ahead to arrest Peter. Not long afterwards, a messenger returns with his signed abdication. With minimal bloodshed, the coup has been a resounding success. Peter is imprisoned in Rupsha, a village near St. Petersburg, but not long afterwards he is strangled under mysterious circumstances. It seems likely that Orlov's brother, a man known as Scarface, is involved, and though not ordered by Catherine, his death conveniences her greatly. Seeking to quell the rumors of assassination, she issues a report announcing death by emeroidal colic. Among the more cynical of her subjects, the term swiftly becomes a euphemism for political murder. Going up, Prices keep going up.

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[Russell E. Martin]

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[Russell E. Martin]

Aware that she is a Romanov by marriage rather than birth, Catherine quickly arranges a formal coronation to seal her legitimacy. She has a new crown and orb designed for the ceremony. And her robes sport the double headed eagle, the emblem of Imperial Russia. An avid supporter of the arts, literature and education, Catherine oversees the opening of the Hermitage Museum, which houses part of her personal art collection. Female artists flourish under her rule and the Smolny Institute for Noble Girls opens the first state sponsored educational institution for female students in Russia. At some personal risk, in 1768, during a smallpox outbreak, Catherine personally undergoes inoculation, a relatively new and therefore risky precursor to vaccination. By having her son Paul inoculated too, she leads by example, an enlightened monarch embracing science and reason to better the lives of her people. In efforts to modernize Russia. It's around this time that Catherine convenes the Legislative Commission, comprising representatives from various social groups to discuss legal and political reform. Catherine presents the commission with her remarkably liberal vision of the ideal government, which includes the abolition of torture and more protection for serfs. But these ideas prove too radical for Russia's nobility, and the outbreak of war against the Ottoman Empire provides an opportunity to disband the project. One of Catherine's most significant military engagements. The war results in Russian victory over the Ottomans, securing Crimea and strengthening Russia's presence in the Black Sea. In total, during her reign, Catherine the Great extends the borders of the Russian empire by over 200,000 square miles. In addition to the annexation of Crimea, she also secures large parts of Belarus, Lithuania and Ukraine.

[John Hopkins]

One can talk about the territorial gains that happened under Catherine, particularly the Crimea, which has relevance today. But in a way, one can also talk about the corrections and fixes that Catherine introduces to the political system she inherited coming out of Edu the Great's reign. And she does improve the way. Taxation, local administration, army training, the navy. She goes back and rethinks some of the reforms that Peter introduced, sometimes wiping the clean from the chalkboard and introducing something new that worked better.

[Russell E. Martin]

But in 1774, a revolt throws a spanner in the works of Catherine's enlightened plans. Led by a Cossack claiming to be her late husband, Peter iii. What becomes known as the Pugachev Rebellion marks a major turning point in her reign, demonstrating a deep social unrest. Though it is extinguished by the Russian army with some brutality, it causes Catherine to realize how heavily she relies on the nobility to control the country. She puts her more radical ideas aside.

[John Hopkins]

The Pugachev Rebellion sealed the fate of these ideas because what it showed to her, what it convinced her, is that Russia wasn't ready for these reforms. She gets afraid of what might happen if you give freedom to people that, as she saw in the Pugachev rebellion, might just turn their pitchforks against her. And that was just too much to contemplate. And as a result, an opportunity is lost.

[Russell E. Martin]

Forced to revise her policies, Catherine becomes increasingly aligned with the interests of the nobility. In 1785, a charter solidifies their position as a separate and privileged estate within Russian society, guaranteeing them significant rights and protections. Those early concerns for the serf's suffering seem now to be dismissed, and their status and rights continue to deteriorate under her rule. Catherine dies from a stroke in St Petersburg on November 17, 1796, aged 67. But despite her extraordinary achievements in strengthening the empire, her efforts to fully realize her progressive goals ultimately fell short. When her son Paul ascends to the throne, the tsardom returns to a Romanov by blood rather than marriage. But he inherits an empire on the brink of major change. Paul I's unpopular reign is marked by instability and paranoia and comes to an abrupt end in 1801 with his assassination orchestrated by a group of Russian nobles and military officers. By now, the system of male primogeniture, the passing of the throne to the firstborn son, has been restored. Paul's son, Alexander, proves more popular. Tall and handsome, he has the charm of his grandmother, Catherine the Great, and similar interests, too.

[John Hopkins]

Alexander is a man of cultural contrasts, too. Like his grandmother, he was raised by his grandmother Catherine, to know what the west was thinking. He read the philosophs as she had. He had traveled to the west and fought Western armies, and yet was also convinced, like his grandmother and father, that Russia could be explosive if allowed to be there needed to be a lid kept on what they assumed was a kind of festering revolutionary impulse.

[Russell E. Martin]

Despite conversations early in his reign about the abolition of serfdom, Alexander is mindful of challenging the nobility who are unwilling to lose the workers on whom their wealth and comfort depend. Yet it is not a problem that is going to go away. But before too long, affairs abroad become more immediately pressing for the young tsar, whose reign will come to be defined by the challenges of the Napoleonic Wars. After the French Revolution destabilized France, Napoleon Bonaparte seized control in 1799 through a coup d' etat, and now he is setting his sights on the rest of Europe. In 1805, Alexander joins the third coalition against Napoleon, which includes Britain, Austria and Russia. However, the alliance is defeated at the Battle of Austerlitz in December of that year, where Russian forces suffer a decisive loss. In 1807, after another defeat, Alexander is forced into an uneasy alliance with Napoleon through the Treaty of Tilsit. But a turning point comes in 1812, when Napoleon breaks the treaty and invades Russia. Alexander leads his forces into a conflict in which the harsh winter and the Russians scorched earth tactics contribute to the destruction of Napoleon's army. After their retreat, Alexander becomes a key figure in the Sixth Coalition, which defeats Napoleon and forces his exile to Elba in 1814.

[John Hopkins]

Alexander I, in a way, is the defeater of Napoleon. His armies participate in some of the most important battles of the war, or most importantly, the last of them. In many ways, the most important battles of those Napoleonic wars are after the Battle of the nations and when Napoleon is attempting to keep the Allies out right before his first abdication and it's the Russians reach that wall of defense and capture Paris. But it was during his reign that many of these great noble families who had experienced Paris, had read the French Enlightenment literature, had fought Napoleon and come back for a Russia that didn't fit their worldview. They had changed, Russia hadn't. And Alexander, because he was the great victor of Napoleon, Alexander was the one who kept the lid on.

[Russell E. Martin]

By the end of his reign in 1825, the situation has become increasingly volatile. The lid, many fear, won't stay on much longer after Alexander I's sudden death. His brother Nicholas I rules with an autocratic style, particularly after the suppression of the Decembrist revolt, an attempted coup by liberal reformists in 1825. Conversely, his son Alexander II, who takes the throne in 1855, becomes known as the Tsar Liberator for his emancipation edict which abolishes serfdom. Yet to his more revolutionary subjects, his reforms don't go far enough and he is assassinated in 1881. His immediate successor, Alexander III, reverts to conservative policies and autocracy. But it will be his son, Nicholas II who will be faced with the Romanov's greatest challenges yet. A deeply religious and family oriented man, Nicholas II is devoted to his wife Alexandra, the German born granddaughter of Queen Victoria. But Nicholas is also an indecisive and politically inexperienced ruler, too easily swayed by advisors and resistant to the reforms that are becoming increasingly urgent in Russia. His reign begins inauspiciously. As part of the celebrations for his coronation, a grand public gathering is planned in which free food, drinks and commemorative gifts are to be distributed to the people. When rumors spread that there might not be enough gifts for everyone, a massive crowd of around 500,000 arrives early in the morning. In the stampede that follows, around 1300 people lose their lives and Many more are injured. Though disturbed by the tragedy, Nicholas attends a lavish ball at the French Embassy that evening. It is not a good look. The event is seen as a bad omen for his reign, and things unravel further in the years that follow. Eager to secure Russia's place in the competition for colonial territories, Nicholas pushes for expansion into Manchuria, a region in northeast China. But Japan also has designs on the territory, and in 1904, the two sides go to war. Russia suffers a humiliating, costly defeat, and discontentment at home spreads, leading to strikes and riots. One day in January 1905, soldiers in St Petersburg opened fire on protesters demanding reforms, a day that becomes known as Bloody Sunday. As opposition to the Tsar intensifies, Nicholas is forced to grant a constitution and establish a parliament, the Duma. This empowers the middle classes and gives more people a say in government. But Nicholas offers only limited reforms, tightening voting laws to exclude radicals, while allowing the secret police to crush dissent. When World War I erupts in 1914, the monarchy temporarily regains support, with Russia standing alongside France and Britain against Austria, Hungary and Germany. But in 1915, Nicholas makes a catastrophic he assumes direct command of the Russian armies. He hopes to inspire his troops and boost morale, but his lack of military expertise hinders rather than helps his men. Every defeat becomes his personal failure.

[John Hopkins]

Russia has initial success in the first months of the war, 1914, and even later into 1915, some success against the Austrians. But the story of what was War one for the Russians is one of serial defeats, with occasional important and heroic victories. But retreat out of Poland, out of Western Ukraine and even through the Baltic states. What World War I really does is it exposes to view the weaknesses of the political system and in this particular case, also of the Tsar himself, Nicholas ii. The political system itself relied too much on it not being a system. It was very much concentrated in the hands of the court and of the Emperor. No decision really could be made, even after 1905, when there was a Duma anomaly constitution, all decisions really are being made at the very top, all the crucial ones.

[Russell E. Martin]

With Nicholas away at war, Alexandra takes a more active role in governing Russia. But with the country suffering heavy losses, high inflation and severe food shortages worsen the grinding poverty that most Russians already endure by this point. Nicholas and Alexandra have five children, four daughters, Olga, Tatiana, Maria and Anastasia, as well as Alexei, their long awaited son and heir. But Alexei suffers from hemophilia, a serious blood disorder that deeply concerns his parents. Amid the wider social discontent, the German born Alexandra quickly becomes the focus of public ire, along with her confidant, the mystic Rasputin. Present at court since 1905, Rasputin's influence intensifies with his apparent ability to treat Alexei's hemophilia.

[John Hopkins]

There's no doubt that Rasputin had enormous influence on Alexandra, and therefore through her, on the Emperor. That's pretty well demonstrated. The question is, how important was it for policy? It does seem that his recommendations on ministerial appointments and even the appointments of some generals played a role in those appointments. And sometimes those appointments really rubbed other officials in government, civil government and in the military in the wrong ways. But it's also possible, I think, to overstate Rasputin's influence. He did not guide the progress of the war. His influence was limited to a very narrow circle inside St. Petersburg.

[Russell E. Martin]

Nevertheless, in December 1916, Rasputin is murdered by discontented nobles who see him as a dangerous influence on the monarchy. Just weeks later, in February 1917, protests explode across St. Petersburg, renamed Petrograd. In the war, as the unrest intensifies, Nicholas loses the loyalty of the army and is forced to abdicate. A fragile Provisional government emerges while the former Tsar and his family are moved from one location to another before being imprisoned in Yekaterinburg in the ural Mountains. By October 1917, the provisional government is overthrown by the Bolsheviks, a radical socialist faction of the Russian revolutionary movement led by Vladimir Lenin. After a punishing peace treaty with Germany in March 1918, the country collapses into civil war. By July, with the anti Bolshevik White army closing in on Yekaterinburg, a decision is needed. What should be done about the Tsar and his family? To the Bolsheviks, they are still a dangerous symbol of monarchy. And as long as the Romanovs remain alive, they will be regarded as figureheads for those wishing to reinstate the old order. The end of the Romanovs arrives in a similar manner to its beginning. When a sickly teenage boy is woken in the middle of the night on July 17, 1918 in Ipatiev House in Yekaterinborg, 800 miles east of Moscow, 13 year old Alexei, son of the former Tsar Nicholas, is roused suddenly from his bed in the room he shares with his parents. Alexei struggles to sit up in bed, still recovering from a recent hemorrhage. But when their Bolshevik guards tell his parents to get dressed, he does what he can to move quickly. Even this early in the day, Alexei can hear a blast of artillery. The White army must be getting closer. His mother puts a cool hand on his forehead and then, with her usual gentleness, she helps him to get dressed in a military shirt, breeches and peaked cap, a similar outfit to his father. She herself dresses in a white blouse and long black skirt. In all their clothes, the jewels of the Romanov dynasty have been hidden, sewn into them for safekeeping for their journey downstairs. His father lifts Alexei in his arms. They meet on the landing with his four sisters and three servants, and the family make their way together to what they are told is a safer location. Alexei notices how pale his parents look, but that has become normal in this frightening new time. At least they will be on the move soon. They are led outside by the Bolshevik commandant, but instead of exiting the compound, they only cross a courtyard and are guided downstairs to a bare basement lit by a single electric light bulb. Alexei, still carried by his father, asks what's going on? But he is not given an answer. His mother, the more dominant of his parents, asks for a chair. Two are brought for her and her son, and his stony faced father places him gently down. Now there is some activity in the corridor outside, the slurred voices of drunken soldiers. But after that, for a while, nothing happens. The family waits in sleepy silence. Alexei's eyelids begin to droop until the door slams open once again. The Bolshevik commandant enters, along with 10 armed men. Across the crowded room, Alexei stares at the men's guns, his heart beginning to pound. Haltingly, the commandant begins to read from a document. The words seem jumbled to Alexei, but one of his sisters shrieks and his panicked father asks the man to read the statement. Again he repeats the words and this time their meaning is painfully clear. It is a death sentence. Alexei crosses himself and closes his eyes. The last thing he sees is soldiers raising their rifles.

[John Hopkins]

Nicholas ii, his wife and children and their three servants are brutally executed in Yekaterinburg, in a cellar of a former governor's house mansion, in an episode that was so poorly thought out and executed that it looks as ridiculous as it does for horribly tragic. There was very little planning on what was going to happen. They didn't know how to dispose of the bodies. Once they did it, they throw them onto a lorry and go to a remote area in the woods where they attempt to burn the two smallest of the bodies, just to see if that would work. It doesn't. And move forward to another location. The mineshaft are going to throw the bodies down the mine shaft, but they get stuck in the mud and they just decided to bury them there. Many of the more distant relatives of the Romanovs would be executed. In short, anybody who was a Romanov or Romanov relative who stayed in Russia after November 1917 were apprehended and executed. The Romanovs that are alive today escaped before the bloodletting began.

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[Russell E. Martin]

The order for the former royal family's execution is believed to have come from Bolshevik leader Lenin, though the exact details and motivations behind the decision remain subject of debate. After the death of the Romanovs, the dynasty that has ruled Russia for 300 years is no more. The country continues its radical political transformation with the Bolsheviks consolidating power. The establishment of their so called Socialist Republic in 1917, later to become the Soviet Union, marks the beginning of over seven decades of communist rule. Over the years, rumors of Anastasia's survival, the youngest daughter of Tsar Nicholas II captivate the world.

[John Hopkins]

What are the enduring features of Russian political culture that pretenders play a role? This is about going back even to the time of Troubles and certainly after 1918 and the execution of the Romanovs. Anastasia is the most famous of these pretenders. There were many others and she was able to convince many people, including those who knew the original Anastasia, that she was Nicholas II's youngest daughter. Well, DNA proved that that wasn't the case. And it becomes just one more of an interesting set of incidences in Russian history where a pretender gets a large following and sort of makes a career out of.

[Russell E. Martin]

The legacy of the Romanovs remains complex. For some, they symbolize the oppressive autocracy of imperial Russia. While for others, their tragic deaths embody the heartbreaking consequences of political upheaval. And though today's Russia is almost unrecognizable from the one they left behind, their character and traditions can still be found more than a century after their demise.

[John Hopkins]

Russia is in constant motion. Like all societies really, it's making itself right now. Part of the Romanov tradition isn't just autocracy. Part of that tradition is also liberalism, the Enlightenment reason, Westernization. These two trends in our minds today might seem contradictory, come together in Russia as it does in other places, to produce a very dynamic, complicated culture and country. All of these themes are there. All these threads are there that can be pulled on. Right now, Russia is pulling, pulling on some of the threads that it has received from the past, but it could just as easily pull on some of the others. When it comes to Russia, nothing is etched in stone.

[Russell E. Martin]

Next time on Short History, I will bring you a short history of Alfred Hitchcock.

[John Hopkins]

I think the legacy of Alfred Hitchcock is he was a great storyteller and teacher. He's inspired many filmmakers, directors today, from Christopher Nolan to David Fincher to Park Chiang Work to Bong Jong Ho. And because people always want a good story, they want a good yarn. And Hitchcock was great about story because he was thinking about the audience and how they would respond to the storytelling. He would use things from his life, store them up, and then put them back on screen in most unexpected ways.

[Russell E. Martin]

That's next time. If you can't wait a week until the next episode, you can listen to it right away by subscribing to Noiser plus, head to www.noiza.comscriptions for more information.