Sinica Podcast: “The Highest Exam: Jia Ruixue and Li Hongbin on China's Gaokao”

Host: Kaiser Kuo
Guests: Jia Ruixue (UCSD), Li Hongbin (Stanford), Claire Cuzneau (co-author/editor)
Date: January 21, 2026

Episode Overview

In this episode, Kaiser Kuo is joined by Professors Jia Ruixue and Li Hongbin, co-authors of The Highest Exam: How the Gaokao Shapes China, to dissect the central role of the Gaokao—the Chinese National College Entrance Exam—in Chinese society. Their wide-ranging discussion explores the Gaokao not only as an educational gatekeeper but as a fundamental institution shaping governance, social mobility, labor markets, political legitimacy, and even emigrant attitudes toward education and fairness. Drawing on personal experience, empirical research, and political economy, they challenge both foreign and domestic preconceptions about why the exam persists and what it reveals about contemporary China.

Key Discussion Points & Insights

1. What is the Gaokao? Beyond a Test

• More than a College Entrance Exam:
  The Gaokao is the summit of China's exam-centered education system. From early childhood, families “already have that targeted test in their mind” (06:18).
  • “It’s not just one exam—it’s guided at the whole education experience.” — Jia Ruixue (06:18)
• Selection, Not Just Education:
  The test’s difficulty serves a particular function:
  • “The primary function is for selection … to select people based on their intelligence and diligence.” — Jia Ruixue (07:31)

2. Gaokao as a System of Elite Allocation & Social Mobility

• Meritocracy and Fate:
  • “It’s an elite allocation mechanism … it can change your fate by working hard for the exam.” — Li Hongbin (07:35)
• Hierarchy & Stakes:
  With only a few points separating tiers, every fraction of a score can determine access to China’s top colleges, which in turn determines job, location (hukou attainment), and class for life.
  • “One point more or a few points more would give you a chance to go to a higher tier of colleges and that makes a big difference in the future.” — Jia Ruixue (09:37)
• Family Investment & Competition:
  Intense investment by families, reinforced by zero-sum competition; as more families gain resources, competition and inequality intensify (09:37–11:08).

3. Why the Pressures Are So Intense

• Few Alternative Paths:
  • “There are very limited alternative routes for social mobility … outside of the education system.” (11:08)
• Hukou & State Jobs:
  College attendance provides access to valuable city residency permits (hukou), and the best jobs remain within the state sector.
  • “If you do well in exams, you can get a valuable hukou in Beijing and Shanghai.” — Li Hongbin (12:37)

4. Personal Histories & Broader Implications

• Upward Mobility and Its Limits:
  Jia's rural background and Li’s experience in the transition out of the Cultural Revolution illustrate both the possibilities and the new inequalities arising from economic changes.
  • “Before going to college I… was just working hard on the exam. Then I observed inequality across my peers… and started thinking about the system.” — Jia Ruixue (14:23)
• From Survival to Selection Function:
  • “Today, because of development, some families are more wealthy than others… education became less equal … compared to 40 years ago.” — Li Hongbin (18:05)

5. Gaokao as a Political Institution

• Stability, Hope, and Justification:
  • “It gives hope to all the families… the prospect of mobility is very essential for stability… If you fail… you blame yourself. If you succeed, it’s because you’re smart.” — Jia Ruixue (19:07)
• Managing Elite Selection:
  The test allows rulers to select and control talent, manage ideological content, and allocate opportunity across regions (with quota systems dating back to the Ming dynasty).
  • “The ideology … can be centralized and manipulated through such a system.” — Jia Ruixue (23:08)
• Fear of the Alternative:
  • “This obsession… comes not from love of the system, but mainly from fear of the alternative.” — Jia Ruixue (25:02)

6. Historical Breaks and Restorations

• Qing and Cultural Revolution Suspensions:
  The abolitions of exam systems led to upheaval and political instability, illustrating their political importance.
  • “Destroying perceived mobility facilitated political instability…” — Jia Ruixue (28:30)
  • “The reform in China didn’t start from 1978, it started in 1977—with the reinstatement of the exam system.” — Jia Ruixue (30:42)

7. Equality, Technology & Persistent Inequality

• Inequality Evolution:
  Economic growth has expanded resources for some, but access remains unequal due to disparities in motivation, parental presence, and teacher quality, rather than material access alone.
  • “They really don't have a lot of motivating teachers… Bad teachers don't want to stay in rural area, they all work in the big cities.” — Li Hongbin (33:46)
• Marketization Erodes Local Opportunity:
  • “With more marketization in the education market, there’s more unequal distribution in terms of teachers.” — Jia Ruixue (35:00)

8. Why Reform is So Difficult

• Reform Attempts and Resistance:
  Attempts to emulate US-style AP or add English speaking/listening were dropped because they exacerbated urban/rural inequalities.
  • “Any reform will change how the testing results… So there will be losers and winners. That’s why it’s so hard.” — Li Hongbin (38:53)
• Flattening the College Hierarchy as a Solution:
  • “If the college hierarchy [were] a bit flattened, then the prize would be less severe.” — Jia Ruixue (44:09)

9. Education and Growth

• Human Capital & Centralization:
  China’s centralized system enabled rapid expansion of education, boosting productivity and GDP.
  • “Because of centralization… the government can quickly expand education if they believe it's important.” — Li Hongbin (41:23)

10. Signals, Selection, and Skill Formation

• College As Selection, Not Value-Add:
  • “The selection function is so strong… labor markets see this as a signal… there’s discrimination based on your degree.” — Jia Ruixue (42:44)
  • “99% graduation rate shows the focus is on selection, not on value-add during college.” (43:59)

11. Labor Market Planning & STEM Emphasis

• State Steering and Unintended Consequences:
  China’s state can quickly direct talent into priority industries, but over-planning sometimes leads to individual misery and mismatches.
  • “This kind of planning is effective, but also has unexpected consequences… There’s a cost at the individual level.” — Jia Ruixue (49:16)

12. Tournament Logic in Governance & Society

• KPI-Driven Promotions:
  The same tournament logic applies to officials—GDP growth is a de facto exam for advancement.
  • “The party manages the country like a big corporation… set a KPI to provincial leaders: whoever can grow the economy fast will be promoted.” — Li Hongbin (51:28)
• Cultural Imprint of Ranking and Competition:
  • “This is a zero-sum game… not very pleasant in a small environment.” — Jia Ruixue (56:25)

13. Exam Culture Abroad and Affirmative Action

• Immigrant Value Clashes:
  Chinese and East Asian Americans often distrust holistic admissions and affirmative action, shaped by their faith in tests as fair and transparent.
  • “If you succeeded from [the exam] system, you naturally think it’s fair…” — Jia Ruixue (58:23)
  • “Social capital is needed for holistic admissions; new immigrants often lack it, making them suspicious.” (58:23)
• Cross-Cultural Contrasts in Trust and Fairness:
  • “In China… if universities had more autonomy, there would be a lot of distrust… [Lack of] checks on power is the fundamental reason for preference for a transparent system.” — Jia Ruixue (64:30)

Notable Quotes & Memorable Moments

On the All-Encompassing Nature of the Gaokao

• “Test started on day one… Not until later in middle school or high school. Even for first grade!” — Li Hongbin (07:35)
• “The obsession is not a love of the system, but fear of the alternative.” — Jia Ruixue (25:02)

On Political Legitimacy

• “If you fail… you’d blame yourself… it gives responsibility to individuals, rather than to the system.” — Jia Ruixue (19:07)
• “You’d have even less social mobility without the Gaokao—more corruption and more arbitrary allocation.” — Paraphrased summary (25:02)

On Reform Impasses

• “Any reform… will change how the titles are allocated. Then, there will be losers and winners. That’s why it’s so hard to reform.” — Li Hongbin (38:53)

On Comparison with US System

• “In China, the ratio [of elite college attendance] between rich and poor is 3:1. In the US, it’s 11:1... So it’s more unequal in this country.” — Li Hongbin (62:46)

On Immigrant Tension Over US Admissions

• “There is a survival bias: those who succeeded in a test-based system naturally think it’s fair…” — Jia Ruixue (58:23)
• “For Asian parents, trust in standardized rule-based evaluation is a moral framework for fairness.” — Paraphrased (60:36)

Broader Implication

• “The education system reflects the society—it’s not only shaping society, but also reflecting its broader structure.” — Jia Ruixue (56:50)

Timestamps of Important Segments

• [05:42] – Defining the Gaokao and its social significance
• [11:08] – Lack of alternative mobility and the importance of hukou
• [14:23] – Jia Ruixue and Li Hongbin’s personal stories
• [19:07] – Gaokao as a political institution (stability, legitimacy)
• [23:08] – Historical endurance and quota system
• [28:30] – Abolition and restoration: lessons from Qing/Cultural Revolution
• [33:26] – Technology, rural/urban motivation & teacher quality
• [36:55] – Why meaningful reform is so difficult
• [41:22] – Education’s direct role in GDP growth & human capital
• [42:44] – Gaokao as selection vs. college as skill development
• [47:11] – Market vs. state in STEM prioritization
• [51:28] – Tournament logic in government
• [56:50] – How tournament logic pervades society and work
• [58:23] – Transplanting exam culture abroad and clashes with US values
• [62:46] – Comparative inequality in China/US, trust in institutions
• [67:49] – Authors’ final takeaways

Memorable Closing Reflections

• “The same system that could work in the past may not work well today. So it’s time to think together how to reform the system.” — Jia Ruixue (67:49)
• “For any institution to survive a thousand years is remarkable. We try to show it objectively to let people think harder about China’s way forward.” — Li Hongbin (68:53)

Further Recommendations (70:33–end)

• Jia’s recommendations:

  • Film: A Town Called Hegang (French: Belamin) — “very humorous about desire and despair in a depressed Chinese town”
  • Book: Stoner by John Williams

• Li’s recommendation:

  • Book: The Dictator’s Handbook

• Kaiser’s recommendations:

  • Book: Furious Minds by Laura K. Field
  • Book: Black by Elle Reeve

Summary Takeaways

• The Gaokao is more than an exam: It is a keystone institution knitting together China's education, bureaucracy, and societal values.
• It is widely perceived as both flawed and necessary: Families and the state both invest in and defend it because the alternative—nepotism, guanxi, corruption—seems worse.
• Historical and political context matter: The persistence and revival of exam-based allocation is tied to political stability, legitimacy, and adaptability.
• Reform is challenging: Any real reform destabilizes entrenched expectations and risks new inequalities.
• Exam logic is (perhaps uncomfortably) central to Chinese society: Its rationale permeates not just education, but government, business, and even the mindset of emigrants abroad.

If you want to understand Chinese society—not just its schools, but its government, labor market, and even emigrant values—start with the Gaokao, and this episode.