The Ancients – Rise of Christianity

Host: Tristan Hughes
Guest: Peter Heather (historian, author of Christendom)
Date: January 4, 2026

Overview

This episode explores one of history’s most dramatic religious and political transformations: the rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire during the 4th century. Tristan Hughes and historian Peter Heather discuss how a persecuted minor sect became the dominant faith, examining key figures, events, controversies, and the profound shift Christianity brought to both the empire and wider European culture.

Key Discussion Points & Insights

1. Setting the Scene: Christianity in 300 AD

[04:17–08:42]

• At 300 AD, Christianity was a tiny and fragmented minority, mostly in urban centers.
• Popular estimates of 10–20% Christian population are grossly inflated; Heather puts it closer to 1–2% of the Roman Empire.

  "You can't get to 20%. That knocks that out... I don't see how you can get Christian numbers up above 1 to 2%." – Peter Heather [12:12]

• Christianity had little rural presence – most Roman peasants remained untouched until centuries later.
• Christian communities were localized, often quite different in belief and practice from each other.

2. Internal Diversity and Doctrinal Development

[13:02–16:05]

• Early Christian groups operated with different texts; various apocryphal gospels were in use.

  "So they're all still floating around." – Peter Heather on the 4th century apocryphal texts [16:04]

• The Council of Nicaea (325 AD) was key, but controversies, especially over the Trinity, roiled Christian circles.
• The process of creating official doctrine was complex and far from settled in the early 4th century.

3. The Great Persecution

[16:54–20:44]

• Emperor Diocletian launched the “Great Persecution,” ordering Christians to sacrifice or die.
• The impact included execution of a few hundred, division among Christians over “lapsi” (those who recanted under threat), but failed in eradicating Christianity.

  “…a few hundred people are executed in the course of it … in the areas where Christianity had spread a bit more widely, the hot issue after it stops is what to do about lapsi—people who had sacrificed or handed over the Gospels.” – Peter Heather [17:02]

• The measure wasn’t broadly popular and was more top-down than grassroots.

4. Constantine and the “Conversion” of the Empire

[22:56–31:32]

• Constantine’s so-called conversion was a gradual, politically shrewd process—his public deity shifted with his victories.

  "He absolutely is hedging his bets.” – Tristan Hughes [25:49]

• His mother Helena and possibly his father’s sympathies may have played a part in his Christianizing tendencies.

• His support didn’t immediately make paganism illegal, but raised Christianity’s profile and triggered a profound alignment with imperial power.

  “God is certainly on his side, and this is what gives him the ideological clout to stand up and say... I’m Christian." – Peter Heather [29:14]

• The Edict of Milan (313 AD) ended persecutions, but full Christianization was even more gradual.

5. Councils and Political Power

[35:33–41:02]

• The close imperial-church alliance began with Constantine but deepened over a century, especially under later emperors.
• Uniform doctrine evolved slowly—disputes over the Trinity weren’t fully settled until the Council of Constantinople (381 AD).
• Emperors wielded substantial power in doctrinal definition—only emperors could call universal (ecumenical) councils.

  “The emperor has been directly appointed by God. ... The emperor should have religious authority.” – Peter Heather [40:12]

6. Continuing Paganism and Resistance

[42:34–44:43]

• Paganism remained widespread, especially among the population at large.
• Julian the Apostate (r. 361–363) attempted a pagan revival, with only fleeting impact.

  “Julian's behavior makes me think about Constantine coming out... He comes out in stages.” – Peter Heather [42:56]

• The rank-and-file were slow to convert; elite conversion often seemed pragmatic.

7. Suppression of Paganism

[50:49–58:08]

• Under Theodosius (late 4th century), more aggressive imperial policies shut down temples and imposed Christianity as the norm.

  “…from the 380s is a first round of shutting down temples on a large scale.” – Peter Heather [52:09]

• Local elites' attitudes determined local outcomes—some temples destroyed, others merely closed or even preserved (esp. in Carthage).
• Destruction could be violent, with mobs and Christian officials acting together.

8. From Elite Faith to Mass Conversion

[59:32–63:23]

• New imperial edicts banned pagans from state service and aimed at rural paganism.
• By late 4th-early 5th centuries, Christianity was deeply entangled with governance; "the church becomes a branch of the empire."

  "What's different about Christianity is... it's actually interfering in the lives of everybody. That's very new." – Peter Heather [61:00]

• It took centuries for Christianization to penetrate rural populations fully.

  "Christianizing the entire world is not a quick task." – Peter Heather [63:23]

9. The Romanization of Christianity

[63:26–65:41]

• Emperors dictated or "rubber-stamped" orthodoxy—councils became showpieces for imperial direction.
• Mass conversion strategies were top-down; emperors ensured councils produced desired outcomes.

Notable Quotes & Memorable Moments

“The thought that it was anything ever other than colossal, and that it might not have become so colossal. That is really hard to encompass when you first start thinking about it.”
– Peter Heather [04:17]

"Nicaea doesn't settle the argument. It's the start of the argument."
– Peter Heather [36:27]

“It's truly extraordinary... a process of evolution that … takes you back to the Bronze Age.”
– Peter Heather on the collapse of longstanding pagan traditions [66:40]

“Inserting a Christian presence into the physical landscape was a way of getting rid of the demons.”
– Peter Heather on the Christianization of pagan temples [67:25]

“The co-optation of Christianity into the apparatus of the Roman state is the crucial factor in its rise to prominence.”
– Interviewer quoting Heather, who affirms: “I think I wrote it.” [68:20]

Timeline of Key Segments

| Timestamp | Segment | |--------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 04:17–09:02 | State of Christianity in 300 AD; population, urban/rural divide | | 13:02–16:08 | Diversity of Christian doctrine and texts; apocrypha | | 16:54–21:50 | Great Persecution and its effects | | 22:56–31:32 | Constantine’s conversion, political strategy, The Edict of Milan | | 35:33–41:02 | Power of emperors in shaping Christianity; Ecumenical councils | | 42:34–44:43 | The Julian Interlude; pagan resilience and elite pragmatism | | 50:49–58:08 | Attack on pagan temples; Theodosius and aggressive Christianization | | 59:32–63:23 | Suppression of paganism, rural conversion, church as imperial branch | | 63:26–65:41 | Romanization of Christianity, top-down councils and orthodoxy | | 66:40–67:58 | The scale of the transformation and Christianization of temples |

Tone

Throughout, Hughes and Heather maintain an engaging, accessible, and occasionally lightly humorous style, using analogies (Soviet state party, climate summits, “coming out” for faith) to drive clarity and interest.

Conclusion

The episode tracks Christianity’s extraordinary ascent from persecuted minority to dominant imperial faith, emphasizing:

• The roles of key emperors—especially Constantine and Theodosius
• The complex, often violent, and politically driven path to orthodoxy
• The nuanced, non-linear process of religious change in both urban and rural contexts

It is a vivid account of how imperial politics, doctrinal disputes, and the machinery of Roman governance combined to reshape Europe’s religious landscape—less a story of inevitability than of contingency, calculation, and coercion.