Podcast Summary: The Ancients – "Fall of Babylon"

Host: Tom Holland
Guest: Rev. Prof. Lloyd Llewelyn Jones
Release Date: November 2, 2025

Overview

This episode delves into the dramatic events and lasting significance surrounding the 539 BC fall of Babylon, the world’s greatest city at the time, to the Persian king Cyrus the Great. Host Tom Holland and guest Rev. Prof. Lloyd Llewelyn Jones explore Babylon’s golden age, the personalities of its last rulers, the reality of its conquest, and the aftermath—challenging myths and offering fresh perspectives through ancient sources, biblical references, and archaeological evidence.

Key Discussion Points & Insights

1. Why the Fall Was a Pivotal Historical Moment

• The transition from the Neo-Babylonian Empire to the vast Persian Empire (03:27).
  • "I say this is the end of a great Mesopotamian empire. And Babylon, of course, is incorporated into the bigger Persian empire, which is a world empire." (Llewelyn Jones, 03:35)
• Importance of Babylon’s continued legacy even after the conquest.

2. Sources for Babylon’s Fall

• Multiple perspectives: indigenous cuneiform documents, Persian conquest literature, and the Bible (04:15–05:04).
• Limitations and propaganda, especially from the Persian side.
  • “We also have a series of sort of conquest literature... created by the new Persian overlords of Babylon too, which... needs to be read quite carefully because this is propaganda literature.” (Llewelyn Jones, 04:15)

3. Babylon in Its Golden Age

• Under Nebuchadnezzar II, Babylon reached peak wealth, culture, and architectural grandeur (05:48–08:04).
  • "Babylon in the 6th century was probably the biggest city the world had ever seen at that point. Before your Alexandrias and your Romes, there was Babylon." (Llewelyn Jones, 07:08)
• Vibrant multicultural life; echoes of the “Tower of Babel” story.
• Impressive infrastructure: processional routes, the Ishtar Gate, bridges, and the ziggurat of Marduk.

4. Rise of Nabonidus: The Last King

• Nabonidus wasn’t Nebuchadnezzar’s son; his rise owed much to his devout, influential mother, Adad Guppi (09:08–12:29).
  • "She is probably the ultimate stage mother in ancient history because she engineers her son's succession to the throne." (Llewelyn Jones, 09:08)
• Adad Guppi’s intense devotion to the moon god Sin influenced Nabonidus deeply.
• Nabonidus prioritized Sin (the moon god) over Babylon’s chief god Marduk, breaking with tradition and upsetting priestly elites (15:58–18:03).
  • "He makes no attempt to move away from that... that's a little bit upsetting in a Babylonian context because the chief duty... was to worship and placate... Marduk." (Llewelyn Jones, 16:31)

5. Religious & Political Tensions

• The annual New Year festival and king’s ritual before Marduk (16:29–18:03).
• Nabonidus’s religious zealotry led to his “exile” in Arabia, while his son, Belshazzar, ruled Babylon as regent (18:32–19:59).
  • “He goes down south to Arabia... and he goes to a place called Timur... and he kind of goes into voluntary religious exile, really, and kind of gives up the rule of Babylon to his son.” (Llewelyn Jones, 18:49)
• Ambiguity: Was Nabonidus ousted or self-exiled? The possibility of internal dissent (20:10–20:25).

6. Belshazzar – Regent and Biblical Figure

• Belshazzar's more traditional religious practice, public presence, and confusion in later biblical accounts (21:10–21:47).
  • The Bible calls Belshazzar the son of Nebuchadnezzar, skipping Nabonidus likely out of ignorance, not malice (21:15–21:47).

7. Cyrus the Great’s Campaign & the Conquest

• Cyrus unified Persia, conquered the Medes and Lydians, then set sights on Babylon (23:52–24:56).
  • "He marches them from the south of Iran to the north, where they absolutely obliterate the Medes... Cyrus decides he's going to go for the ultimate prize and that is he's going to see if he can't take Babylon." (Llewelyn Jones, 24:00)
• The crucial Battle of Opis (approx. 50 miles from Babylon): massive bloodshed, Belshazzar killed, city annihilated as a warning (26:56–27:10).
  • "Cyrus... annihilate[s] it. They kill every man that they find. Most women and children and those who do survive are sold into slavery. It is a brutal attack on this city. And killed in the conflict itself is Belshazzar." (Llewelyn Jones, 27:07)
• The calculated sparing of Babylon itself after this display, as a propaganda maneuver.
  • “He uses Opis as a kind of propaganda piece, saying to the Babylonians, you know, this is what I will do to you if I have to. So I suggest that you open your gates to me.” (Llewelyn Jones, 27:10)

8. Babylon Surrenders Without a Fight

• Babylon’s gates open peacefully for Cyrus with priestly and noble support; Nabonidus likely already captured (28:20–31:02).
• Cyrus assumes Babylonian royal titles and honors its traditions (31:03).
  • “He opens by saying, I am Cyrus, King of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, which are the titles that have been used since, again, Hammurabi, Sargon as well.” (Llewelyn Jones, 31:03)

9. Propaganda, Pragmatism, and Multicultural Politics

• The famous Cyrus Cylinder is explored as imperial spin, emphasizing Cyrus as Marduk’s chosen, replacing the “misfit” Nabonidus (31:36–35:02).
• Echoes in the Hebrew Bible: formulaic stories of Cyrus being “chosen” by respective gods (33:00–35:02).
  • “There is kind of like one core text that’s being used... with the kind of instruction, insert your God here, you know. So Cyrus is playing to a big crowd and they're all basically using this idea that he is the chosen one of whatever God is appropriate.” (Llewelyn Jones, 34:26)

10. Aftermath and Continuity

• Cyrus appoints his son Cambyses as regent, with Persian/Elamite influence evident (35:10–36:48).
• Administrative continuity: local priests, officials, and systems left intact (38:48).
  • "He made no attempt whatsoever to change the governance of Babylon... if it ain’t broken, don’t fix it." (Llewelyn Jones, 38:57)

11. Babylon’s Enduring Significance

• Despite the end of independence, Babylon remained rich, powerful, and culturally central throughout Persian rule (47:09–48:51).
  • “I think actually Babylon is the jewel in the Persian crown.” (Llewelyn Jones, 47:13)
• Used by Persian kings as a strategic and ceremonial center; site of later resistance and legendary status into Hellenistic times and the age of Alexander the Great.

12. Legend, Bible, and Historical Memory

• The famous “writing on the wall” story from the Book of Daniel explores myth-building and historical muddles (42:41–46:59).
  • The episode serves as a parable of hubris, yet differences emerge between the biblical narrative and historical events.
  • "Daniel certainly preserves court stories set in Babylon... this is a very popular sort of genre from the 4th century BC to about the 1st century BC... the genre of the Jewish man in a foreign court is very important." (Llewelyn Jones, 44:10)

Notable Quotes & Memorable Moments

• On Babylon’s grandeur:
  “Babylon in the 6th century was probably the biggest city the world had ever seen at that point. Before your Alexandrias and your Romes, there was Babylon.” (Llewelyn Jones, 07:08)

• On Adad Guppi’s ambition:
  “She is probably the ultimate stage mother in ancient history because she engineers her son’s succession to the throne.” (Llewelyn Jones, 09:08)

• On the propaganda of conquest:
  “He uses Opis as a kind of propaganda piece... I suggest that you open your gates to me. Okay, so it’s a really pragmatic way of doing this.” (Llewelyn Jones, 27:10)

• On the multicultural savvy of Cyrus:
  “There is kind of like one core text that’s being used... insert your God here, you know. So Cyrus is playing to a big crowd...” (Llewelyn Jones, 34:26)

• On Babylon under Persian rule:
  “They value this place. They really do. And many of the great campaigns, you know, against Alexander, for instance, originate from Babylon.” (Llewelyn Jones, 48:29)

Timeline of Major Segments (Timestamps)

• The importance of Babylon’s fall – 03:27
• Source evidence & reliability – 04:11–05:36
• Nebuchadnezzar’s golden age – 05:48–08:37
• Nabonidus, Adad Guppi, and religious politics – 09:08–18:03
• Exile of Nabonidus, rise of Belshazzar – 18:32–21:47
• Cyrus the Great’s conquests and approach – 23:52–27:10
• The brutal sack of Opis – 27:07–28:18
• Babylon’s surrender & the Cyrus cylinder – 28:18–35:02
• Aftermath & Persian administration – 35:10–38:57
• Babylon in the Persian and Hellenistic world – 47:09–49:18
• Biblical ‘writing on the wall’ myth explored – 42:41–46:59

Final Thoughts

The episode challenges the narrative of a simple, dramatic “fall,” revealing a nuanced story of dynastic intrigue, religious policy, shifting loyalties, and the continuity of one of history’s greatest cities. With a focus on primary sources and critical scholarship, Prof. Llewelyn Jones and Tom Holland bring ancient personalities and politics vividly to life.

Further Reading:
Look out for Rev. Prof. Lloyd Llewelyn Jones’ forthcoming book, The Mother of All Cities (Spring 2026), for an in-depth exploration of Babylon’s myth and legacy (49:48).