Proto-Vikings: The Nordic Bronze Age

Summary

The Ancients – Proto-Vikings: The Nordic Bronze Age

Host: Tristan Hughes (History Hit)
Guest: Professor Johan Ling (University of Gothenburg)
Release Date: November 6, 2025

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Episode Overview

This engaging episode delves into the enigmatic world of the Nordic Bronze Age—Scandinavia’s “proto-Viking” era, spanning roughly from 1800 BC to 700 BC. Host Tristan Hughes welcomes Professor Johan Ling to unpack this early seafaring, warlike, and artistically vibrant culture. From extensive maritime trade—long predating the Vikings—to elaborate rock art, horned helmets, and hierarchical societies, the conversation explores how the foundations of Norse identity were laid centuries before the historical Viking Age.

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Key Discussion Points and Insights

1. Defining the Nordic Bronze Age

• Chronology & Geography

  • Period: c. 1800 – 700 BC ([03:23])
  • Core regions: Southern Sweden (up to Stockholm), Southern Norway, all of Denmark, and northern Germany ([03:37])

• Connection to Broader Europe

  • Nordic Bronze Age is central to European prehistory and increasingly recognized for its importance as new evidence emerges ([03:04]).

2. Bronze Technology and Trade

• Later Adoption of ‘Tin Bronze’

  • Full tin bronze (90% copper, 10% tin) emerges in Scandinavia around 1800 BC, slightly after Britain ([04:15]).
  • Scandinavia didn't exploit local copper sources but instead imported both copper and tin, with metal composition analyses linking artifacts to source mines ([05:42]).

• Scale and Logistics of Importation

  • Annually, up to four tons each of copper and tin were imported to Scandinavia ([06:36]).
  • Direct trade evidenced by artifact signatures (e.g., Great Orme copper from Wales found in Danish and Swedish bronzes) ([09:39]).

  “Scandinavia is the region that has outermost access of British types from this phase outside Britain. Therefore, I mean, direct trade must have been the matter.”
  — Prof. Johan Ling ([09:43])

• Maritime Prowess

  • The necessity of metals drove the development of sophisticated plank-built boats and skilled crews, akin to Viking seafarers centuries later ([11:26]).
  • Estimated 40–45 days to paddle from Scandinavia to Welsh sources, but likely involved multiple ports of call in Britain ([10:00]).

3. Society, Elites, and Labor Structure

• Political Economy and Elites

  • Emergence of powerful chiefdoms/elite families capable of organizing long-distance trade ([11:26]).
  • Analogy to Viking Age organization around wealth and control of trade ([08:00], [11:26]).

• Role of Slavery

  • Strong evidence supports the use of unfree labor (slavery), both for agricultural work at home and possibly as a trade good ([13:53]).
  • Archaeological signs: richly furnished barrows for elites, pit burials with no grave goods for others ([14:36]).

  “It’s probably leaders that utilize other groups and also other groups in society in order to achieve the goals."
  — Prof. Johan Ling ([12:30])

4. Trade Networks & Commodities

• Trade Extent

  • Metal imports originated not only from Britain but also the Alps and later Iberia, where up to 150 copper mines are suspected from this period ([17:06]).

• Exports

  • Baltic amber was a key export, found in mine regions all over Europe ([18:36]).
  • Likely also exported organic goods and human captives, with suggestions that children may have been used as labor in foreign mines ([18:36]).

5. Warfare, Raiding, and Warrior Societies

• Opportunistic Expeditions

  • Raiding, slaving, and trading likely occurred together; boats depicted with warriors in rock art ([20:05]).
  • Warrior class emerges, evidenced by grave goods and rock art imagery ([21:00]).

  “You see a boatload of warriors with, you know, swords... For a long time, you said, well, that’s ritualistic... but thinking of what you literally see on the rock art...”
  — Prof. Johan Ling ([20:05])

• Evidence of Conflict

  • Direct evidence from a Norwegian site (small-scale conflict) ([22:19]).
  • The Tolense battlefield (northern Germany): possibly up to 10,000 combatants ([22:19]), indicating unprecedented warfare in prehistoric north Europe.

  “We have the biggest battle recorded, at least in northern Europe, taking place at the Tolense.”
  — Prof. Johan Ling ([22:19])

6. Changing Trade Networks and Population Movements

• Impact of Tolense
  • The expansion of the Urnfield culture cut Scandinavia off from Alpine trade, pushing Nordic societies further toward Atlantic maritime trade ([24:33], [25:01]).
  • Three “maritime polities” (Scandinavia, Britain, Iberia) share artifacts like Hasbroum shields ([23:40]).

7. Settlements, Specialization, and Social Structure

• Settlement Patterns

  • Decentralized complexity: powerful farmsteads, not fortified hillforts ([26:23]).
  • Societies ranged from egalitarian to highly stratified, but elites controlled trade ([27:23]).

• Craft Specialization

  • Early importation of finished goods gave way to local bronze casting; workshops sometimes household-based, sometimes specialist ([28:23]).
  • Practical tools (axes, etc.) were widely distributed; weapons and ornaments mostly reserved for elites ([30:27]).

8. Boats and Maritime Ability

• Port Structures

  • Likely natural harbors for the large, plank-built boats (e.g., Hjortspring boat, Denmark) ([32:05]).
  • Boats could travel over 100km per day with a trained paddling crew ([32:50]), and were a locus of status and initiation.

  “The ones on these boats, they are like the hockey team... the warriors. And they have a chance then to come out, see other people, interact... a sort of academy.”
  — Prof. Johan Ling ([33:44])

9. Rock Art: Artistry and Meaning

• Location and Content

  • Most dense on Sweden’s west coast and Norway’s east coast, always coastal ([37:24]).
  • Dominated by boat scenes, warriors, animals, and cosmological motifs ([37:24]).

• Practical and Ritual Functions

  • Rock art may have served as magical preparation, initiation, or “training manuals” for seafaring expeditions ([39:57]).

  “I think they are preparing these journeys, and rock art is a part of that... to mentally prepare these journeys that are dangerous.”
  — Prof. Johan Ling ([38:36])

• Carving Techniques

  • Recent research shows outlines were made with bronze tools, not just stone, indicating symbolic “consumption” of valuable metal ([40:34]).

10. Religion and Symbols

• Spiritual Beliefs

  • Debate over whether gods are depicted; elites controlled religious practices ([44:31]).
  • Evidence of “sun cults” and cosmological focus, both for practical navigation and symbolic purposes ([46:38]).

• Famous Artifacts

  • Trundholm Chariot: Sun-chariot with a gold and bronze disc, representing the cycle of the sun and moon ([48:30]).

  “…a chariot with two horses pulling a disc that on the one side has gold and the one side bronze. And you think it represent the travel of the sun and the moon…”
  — Prof. Johan Ling ([48:30])

  • Viksø Horned Helmets: Gold, horned helmets dated to around 1000 BC, possibly connected to Indo-European twin rulers and distant analogues in Iberia and Sardinia ([49:58]).

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Memorable Quotes & Moments

• On the dark side of Bronze Age prosperity:

  “People want to have a happy picture of the Bronze Age and gold and amber was traded and everybody was happy... But it has a dark side.”
  — Prof. Johan Ling ([12:30])

• On the scale of conflict in the Bronze Age:

  “We have the biggest battle recorded, at least in northern Europe, taking place at the Tolense... some scholars say there are 5,000, some say there are 10,000 that clash.”
  — Prof. Johan Ling ([22:19])

• On innovation in rock art carving:

  “We can now show... that you must have outlined the rock art with bronze... instead of taking like 10 hours to make a boat, we come down in half an hour.”
  — Prof. Johan Ling ([40:34])

• On boats as microcosms of society:

  “Instead of sitting home with your mother and the goat in the farmstead, you would rather be on the boat with these other trained colleagues...”
  — Prof. Johan Ling ([33:44])

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Timestamps for Notable Segments

• [03:04] – Importance and timeframe of the Nordic Bronze Age
• [05:42] – How bronze and metallurgy arrived in Scandinavia
• [09:39] – Evidence for direct trade with Britain
• [11:26] – Social organization, seafaring, and the role of elites
• [13:53] – Evidence and importance of slavery
• [18:36] – Exports: Amber and human captives
• [20:05] – Raiding, warfare, and depictions in rock art
• [22:19] – Archaeological evidence for large-scale battles (Tolense)
• [24:33] – Shifts in trade and population due to conflict
• [26:23] – Settlement structures and social decentralization
• [28:23] – Domestic vs. imported production, and craftspeople
• [32:05] – Maritime technology and port use
• [37:24] – Distribution and purpose of rock art
• [40:34] – Rock art technique using bronze tools
• [44:31] – Religion, elites, and spiritual beliefs
• [46:38] – The sun cult and the Trundholm Chariot
• [49:58] – Horned helmets and their symbolism
• [52:08] – Collapse of Bronze Age system with the advent of iron

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Conclusion

This episode illuminates the sophisticated and dynamic world of the Nordic Bronze Age, revealing how early Scandinavian societies were already master seafarers, enterprising traders, and fierce warriors centuries before Viking longships prowled Europe’s coasts. The discussion uncovers both the achievements—artistry, innovation, expansive trade—and the social tensions—slavery, inequality, and warfare—of a formative period in European history. Professor Johan Ling’s expertise brings to life a culture whose legacy shaped the legendary Norse world to come.

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Interested listeners are encouraged to explore further episodes of The Ancients and Professor Ling’s ongoing research into maritime trade and Bronze Age mobility.

Transcript

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

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[Greg Jenner]

Hello, Greg Jenner here, host of youf're Dead to Me. In my new family friendly podcast series, Dead Funny History, historical figures come back to life for just about long enough to argue with me, tell us their life stories, and sometimes get on my nerves. There's 15 lovely episodes to unwrap, including the life of Ramses the Great, Josephine Baker and the history of football. Plus much, much more. So this Christmas, give your ears a treat with Dead Funny History. You can find it in the you're Dead to me feed on BBC.com or wherever you get your podcast.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

Hey guys, I hope you're doing well. Now I've come to terms with the fact that we can't cover the story of the Vikings on the ancients because, let's face it, they're not ancient, they're medieval. What we can do, however, is cover the story of of their Scandinavian ancestors. And that's what we're doing today. We're going back some 3,000 years to explore the amazing story of the Nordic Bronze Age. These proto Vikings who loved their seafaring and their raiding, amazing rock art, gold artifacts and so much more. We're covering all of that today. Now our guest today is Johan Ling Johan. He is a professor of archaeology at the University of Gothenburg. He dialed in from Sweden for this chat. Really grateful for his time and I really do hope you enjoy. Let's go. Three thousand years ago, long before the Vikings, wooden boats sailed from Scandinavia to Britain. These Bronze Age vessels were filled with men alongside amber for trading and weapons for raiding. They belonged to a culture where sea voyages were famous and central to life, but also one in constant need of metals imported from overseas. A culture of rulers, raiders and rock art, of sun chariots, horned helmets, and so much more. This is the story of the Nordic Bronze Age with our guest, Professor Johan Ling.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Johan.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

It is a pleasure to have you on the podcast today.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Thank you. Thank you very much indeed.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

Now I'm very excited for this topic because the Nordic Bronze Age, I mean, it feels lesser known in the UK and the US Than it should. And yet this extraordinary culture, it's central to the story of Europe's wider Bronze Age.

[Professor Johan Ling]

It is and it becomes more central recently with the all new evidence that has come to the fore, so to speak. Just a fascinating phase in European prehistory.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

And set the scene for us. First of all, Johan, when are we talking with the Nordic Bronze Age?

[Professor Johan Ling]

Basically we talk about 1800 BC to 700 BC.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

And in regards to Scandinavia, are there particular parts of Scandinavia where we focus in on with the Nordic Bronze Age?

[Professor Johan Ling]

We're in much southern Scandinavia in that sense, but also northern Germany that was part of this sphere during the Bronze Age or became a part of it, at least in the late Bronze Age. So it's basically southern Sweden, or you can say up to Stockholm in Sweden and somewhat north, and then it's southern Norway, entire Denmark and parts of northern Germany.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

And you mentioned also there how the Nordic Bronze age begins around 1800 BC compared to the likes of Britain, Ireland and so on. Does it feel as if the Bronze Age begins a little later in Scandinavia than elsewhere?

[Professor Johan Ling]

In a way not. It's just like a take that is very Scandinavian in that sense. In terms of chronology, we have what we call our late Neolithic period that is the same as your Early Bronze Age already then we have coproloi, so to speak. But when we get what you call full tin bronze bronze with about 90% copper and 10% tin, it's when about 1800 BC. Therefore we coin it that way. You are earlier on the British Isles with that in that sense. I mean, British Isles are one of the earliest regions in Europe with full tim bronze or what you call already 2000 BC. Fascinating enough, because you bump into this gray stuff in Cornwall, probably according to colleagues in the uk when you're looking for gold and then for some reason you start to alloy this with copper and you get a really high quality metal that you can use for tools, weapons, ornaments. It shines like gold also, but highly, highly sufficient. And in terms of tools and weapons, it does not become replaced until you have iron or actually steel in that sense.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

So how does tin bronze and how does the Bronze Age come to Scandinavia? Do we know much about that?

[Professor Johan Ling]

Well, in a way we do, because it has much to do with how if we first of all, did we extract copper? We did not. We have. I had several projects that look into that matter. Strange enough, on the other hand, Sweden and parts of Norway also has a lot of copper sources, but they were not used in the Bronze Age. They do not match the single signatures on the artifacts. When we analyze those, so it shows. And also we had no evidence of prehistoric mining. Therefore, these societies were needed to import copper and also tin. And they do that on a regular basis, but also on in a very high basis, so to speak. We speak about annually that you import at least two, maybe three, maybe four tonnage.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

Wow.

[Professor Johan Ling]

To Scandinavia in order to fulfill the demands that these societies has. And we have new data comes in all the time showing that we have underestimated the consumption of copper and tin. For instance, we have findings of swords only in that, that shows that all in all require true tonnage. Also knowing that a lot of material has, I mean, bronze also vanish when you use it. So the evidence also we have from the mines from this phase in different regions in Europe shows a big, big output. And what we find in the ground is maybe 0.01 percentage of what has been extracted.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

And is it very much a case that as the Bronze Age goes on, that demand for copper and tin from overseas it just increases and decreases. So the amount of copper and tin coming to Scandinavia is. It only grows in like the tonnage as those centuries progressed?

[Professor Johan Ling]

Yes, exactly. Due to that, you use it a both for weapons and for tools and for ornaments. So it's like a multi tool in that sense. And interesting enough, you can see when in the Late Bronze Age or transition to Iron Age, when Scandinavian societies start to use local iron instead, the entire system in Scandinavia breaks down. A system that was based on elite families that organized long distance exchange of copper and tin. And therefore it became more internal for a while. Interesting. Also we can say, we can make an analogy for instance, with the Viking Age, where we know that for instance, Scandinavia and specifically some parts of Sweden were able to attract most silver. I mean, we have the largest silver hoards in entire Europe. We don't extract silver. But in the Viking Age we then know, we have literature saying that, well, the Vikings, they drew their boats and tried to push as far as possible nearest sources of metal of the silver, for instance, or the port. We believe now that in the Bronze Age we had a similar system, or actually that the Viking Age system has its roots in the Bronze Age. Although not the same scale and not the same details, but. But we cannot understand otherwise how the Scandinavian societies were able to organize or attract all this metal. Of course you could speculate to say, well, you can have like down the line trade of, you know, that, you know, over from region to region. That would be highly costly, it wouldn't work. And also the metal analysis we have done on the artifacts show for instance, that we have a lot of artifacts in Denmark and Sweden that match Great Orme, a specific mine that you have in Wales.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

In Wales, okay.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Although you have almost basically nothing in between. You have, of course, you have great ore copper in France, but nothing in that sense in the regions between. But then we have very much, I mean, in Scandinavia also. Scandinavia is the region that has outermost axis of British types from this phase outside Britain. Therefore, I mean, direct trade must have been the matter. And therefore you must have had sufficient boats. You must have had crew, probably crew consisting of slash warriors, traveler traders, very much similar to what we see in the Viking Age. And probably they tried to push these boats as close as possible to where the sources are. We have, for instance, modeled on basis of the capacity of Bronze Age boats, the plank boats, how long time it would take to paddle to Great Orme. And it would take about 40, 45 days with good weather conditions, something like that. But probably you go maybe not that far. You go to other ports, you go to Tannet, a very interesting island or used to be an island in southeast England or Isle of Wight or other places in between, so to speak.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

Guess it makes sense, doesn't it, Johann, that if during the Bronze Age these people are importing copper and tin, and I'm presuming also like gold and gold from overseas places like Britain, then it makes sense that they become really skilled seafarers and develop these extraordinary boats from some 3,000 years ago.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Indeed, first of all, and it demands also a very specific social organization to handle this. And also what we see is the emergence of the first political economy with institutionalized leadership that are able to organize the trade and therefore what you coin as chiefdom or chiefdom like societies. And they are concentrating on wealth flows. These are probably families, elite families that could organize trade. They are very much concentrating on these wealth flows. And they do that through bottlenecks. Bottleneck is a boat, for instance. It's expensive to have a boat, to have the crew and all the details and launch long distance exchange. Also other bottlenecks could be like certain passes, points, animals. We are also pretty much convinced that this system is based on unfree labor on slaves. As for the Viking Age, I mean, if you move people from the house unit to the boat, who is taking care of the animals, who's taking care of the corpse, who's taking care of the land? So for instance, the Vikings, they made sure that they had slaves doing that, otherwise the system wouldn't work. We think that this is also the case in Scandinavia in the Bronze Age. And we have indications of it in terms of, I mean in the funeral we can see that some individuals are just thrown in pits, while you have also these highly furnished graves and you can see a social strata, so to speak, and probably also the, you know, indications what could be unfree labor. We see it in rock art and also all in all in some scholars argue that we can see it in the house constructions, that certain sections in the house are for the unfree labor. And of course it's a very spectacular. They oftenly people want to have a happy picture of the Bronze Age and gold and amber was traded and everybody was happy and it was shining. But it has a dark side, I have to say. And it's probably leaders that utilize other groups and also other groups in society in order to achieve the goals.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

It's interesting having done a few projects over the years in Ireland and also in Kilmartin Glen, looking at those extraordinary Bronze Age burials that survive, but people saying how they are associated with those rich families that emerge in the Bronze Age controlling these metal trade routes. Those are the ones who are visible in the surviving archaeology with their amazing grave goods and copper and bronze weapons and so on. And as you say that the more invisible people, although you pointed out the archaeology is actually revealing, maybe pointing that on free labor, but usually the invisible people, you know, those are the people who were working for those figures when they were building these extensive trade routes which allowed the importing of so much metal to Scandinavia at that time.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Yeah, exactly. Briefly. I mean, we have the same situation in Scandinavia with the highly furnished barrows, you know, as you say here, like kilmarting. And then we have people buried in pits with nothing. So and all in all, slaves must have been a very important commodity also in trade, we think, but also in due to be able to organize trade to fill the labor gaps at the farm, so to speak. And I remember we had a conference back in 2017 with one of the leading scholars in anthropology, Timothy Earl Bren Hayden, and they saw some of the papers from this was also leading the leading Bronze Age scholars from Europe then said, fine, interesting with this trade with amber, gold and copper, tin, but where are the unfree labor? They said, I mean we can't see any society that are able to organize trade long distance trade that does not have this. And that was like awakening for us. And then we start to model this with the slave labor.

[Greg Jenner]

Hello, Greg Jenner here, host of youf're Dead to Me in my new family friendly podcast series, Dead Funny History. Historical figures come back to life for just about long enough to argue with me, tell us their life stories and sometimes get on my nerves. There's 15 lovely episodes to unwrap, including the life of Ramses the Great Josephine Baker and the History of football. Plus much, much more. So this Christmas, give your ears a treat with dead funny history. You can find it in the youe're Dead to me feed on BBC.com or wherever you get your podcasts.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

I'd like to ask a bit more about the structure of these Nordic Bronze Age societies in a moment, but before that I'd like to revisit these trade networks that we've mentioned earlier. You highlighted how Britain seems to be a source of copper imported into Scandinavia. Places like the Great Ore Mine. But do we know just how extensive these trade routes became in the Bronze Age? I mean, how far and wide they spread the various sources of metals that they were importing?

[Professor Johan Ling]

Well, they are very extensive. And I mean as I said in terms of Scandinavia, we can then specifically say that in early Bronze Age we get metal both from the Alpine region, but also the British Isles in a certain phase. Interesting enough, when Great Orm supposedly Its most active 1600-1400 BC A majority of our artifacts match that that mine. Afterwards Great Orm is declining and other sources. Then we turn to Tallinn Alps for a while and then Iberia, Iberia comes in like really strong motor, which is not surprising because Iberia has not only Europe's but one of the world's largest mineralization of copper. It's crazy. And they have all in all they have potentially 150 mines that could be from the Bronze Age that hasn't been explored yet. But there are at least 40 of these mines match artifacts from Ireland, southern Britain, southern England, France, Scandinavia, Poland in the late Bronze Age. So Iberia comes in as a motor in this system.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

So Spain and Portugal indeed you know, always so important in the wider Bronze Age story. And of course we've been focusing on what these Nordic Bronze Age communities were importing in regards to these various metals. But what were they exporting in return? You mentioned amber earlier.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Amber is probably one commodity. And fascinating enough we can see that in all these mine bearing regions that Baltic amber comes in to some extent at least. So that is at least something that points to what's had been traded. But then I mean there could also be very much organic material and we think also humans. I mean we speculate also that these mines, they needed some of these mines. And for instance, Great Orm has very narrow shafts and they argue themselves it must be children who has done this undertaking. So we think also captives is a part of this exchange that could have been used in parallel to amber and other features as well. But this is also something we have learned from anthropology and that for that reason, you are probably focusing on women and children. That's the classical thing in time and space, what you do. And we think that could be a part of the commodity.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

And do we think the importance of boats for these Nordic Bronze Age communities and the development of them and the mention of captives just then, could there also therefore be a more hostile warfare slant to the gaining of these materials? Could there have been groups of Nordic people who were sent out to raid places like Britain to gain the materials that they needed?

[Professor Johan Ling]

Indeed. I think these are very opportunistic ventures. And they. If they have the chance, they. I mean, they are raiding, slaving, probably, and also trading. But classical thing, if, if. I mean, they have a. If you have a weaker opponent, you take the chance. And so we think that's a very important feature also in this system. Basically, this is what you see on the rock art, right? You see. You see a boatload of warriors with. With, you know, swords, weaving swords. For a long time, you said, well, that's ritualistic, and it could be, but that's also like the scapegoat for all archaeologists when they don't have another answer. Well, it's a ritual feature. You say, okay, then it's over. But I mean, thinking of what you literally see on the rock art, I mean, warriors, boats, metals, and we are hammering in 20,000 boats on the rocks in Scandinavia during this phase after the Bronze Age is gone, comes back in the Viking Age in another. Another turn, you can say. But it's fascinating because it. It show probably how these societies were entering a change. And specifically the groups that are on board these boats that do these undertakings. And I mean, in this system, you have elites, but warriors are instrumental for this system, instrumental to. For controlling the trade, executing the trade, for raiding, for slaving, et cetera, et cetera. And we have also, what is fascinating with the Nordic Bronze Age, we have the evidence in terms of rock art, in terms of graves, of the first warrior clause in the Nordic communities. I mean, specific individuals with swords, axes, and then also you see it on the rock art.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

I'll ask a bit more about the rock art in a moment, because I know that's something you've done a lot of work around, but do we have any direct evidence for battles, for fighting at this period as well, alongside I guess the indirect evidence of weapons and battle scenes on rock art and so on.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Indeed. I mean we can. First of all, we have a site in Norway that shows conflict maybe on a rather low scale, maybe 30, 40 groups. And also we can see worn out swords and axes. However, we have the biggest battle recorded, at least in northern Europe taking place the Tolense. That would require people from the north and they couldn't. I mean, there are big troops coming in from central Europe. And you speak about maybe some scholars say there are thousands, some say there are 5,000, some say there are 10,000 that clash. I mean, they haven't been able to delimit all these bodies that they have found. And they are constantly finding more. And this is probably showing the Urnfield expansion up to the north. And ultimately we think they failed because after that you see the expansion of the Nordic Bronze Age. And there's also a new preprint in nature that's been submitted showing that we don't find any genetic evidence of the field coming up to the north. While after this phase the Nordic Bronze expands. Interesting. With this Unfield expansion also we see a shift from Scandinavia, from the trade we had had with the Italian Alps towards Atlantic facade, indicating that the Runiffel is cutting off the trade routes and pushing us towards the Atlantic facade. Where we then see the similarities between, for instance, I mean the shields in Britain and Scandinavia, the rock art to some extent, but also the rock art in Iberia. So we find a new. And then the copper in Iberia comes in that phase as well. So we see a new. You can see three maritime polities in Atlantic Europe. They're pushing Iberia, Britain and Scandinavia, manifested by these hasbroum shields that they're called, that you have found on British Isles in Scandinavia and then also depicted on the warrior stele in Iberia.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

Johan, it's so fascinating. So potentially hostile powers in, you know, what is today Germany cutting off that land trade route that had been with the Alps and then as you say, leading to the expansion of the Nordic Bronze Age culture with these great maritime trade routes. It's fascinating to think whether that extraordinary battle site, Tollens, the result of that may well have contributed to the transformation, the rise of the Nordic Bronze Age at that time.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Exactly. And you see a redirection of exchange networks due to that. And still this expansion is, I mean it goes westward, France, northern Iberia, whilst, you know, Scandinavia stays. We don't get this unifield, you know, we never get otherwise unifil culture captures multiple regions, but we are staying. And Nordic Bronze Age is expanding southwards in later phase. We are south of Berlin actually. So it's little like looking at the penguins atlas from history. It's almost like seeing that in the Bronze. But it's fascinating in that sense. So we have underestimated warfare population, we have underestimated organization of trade. And new data constantly comes in to show that.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

I'd like to now go back to these communities themselves in Scandinavia. And you've already mentioned how you see the rise of these elites who control the metal trades and this kind of the emergence of these social hierarchies in the Nordic Bronze Age. But do we have any idea about settlement structure? Should we be thinking the equivalent of hill forts or fortified settlements where these chieftains were ruling? I mean, what do we know about the structure of settlements in the Nordic Bronze Age?

[Professor Johan Ling]

Well, these are highly decentralized social settings, which is interesting. Not surrounded by hill fort or fortified. As for the unifield, which is coined as a corporative chiefdom based on what you call staple finance. These societies are based on wealth finance and they're typical decentralized. But in this decentralized society, you have what you call decentralized complexity. You have some farmsteads that really have much power and they expand all the time. Of course, this society, I mean, you have different societies. Some are more orientated to cooperation and the others are more coercive, you can say. But in order to organize long distance exchange, you have to have alliances. So you see probably mosaic of different types of societies ranging from more egalitarian.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

To more stratified and being allied together for the trade.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Whilst the one that are organizing trade, these are the elites, no doubt. And that we very much. I mean, we can see close to the larger farmsteads we find specifically in Denmark, these large barrels that indicates, you know, this institutionalized, formalized leadership that are related to these farmsteads and that we have clearly a stratified society during this phase, able to organize long distance train.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

And then would they almost have. I don't want to do it almost as like a. The rung down. I think that's the wrong terminology. But would you then have within these societies specialists who would be working in. In the equivalent, I guess of blacksmiths or workshops. Basically the people who would be, you know, they get the tin and the copper and then they're crafting it into the certain bronze objects or do the objects come fully formed?

[Professor Johan Ling]

No, that's a fascinating thing with the Nordic Bronze Age that we, I mean, in the beginning of the Nordic Bronze Age, you import certain objects. But we can see in the early Bronze Age the Nordic industry starts showing that we are costing everything ourselves up here, doing it in a Nordic fashion. And we can find workshop for that. Some seems to be integrated in certain households, other are. Seems to be more specialist. Interesting enough, most data on that from Sweden, I think we have, although missed some. I mean, Denmark has. That is a region without the most bronzes. And, and they haven't been able to actually find all these workshops yet because there should be considerable, you know, sites where or sites showing the bronze casting. Knowing that you annually import one to two tonnage, that's a little phenomena. But we have some theories about it. In any case, in terms of your question, yes, you have specialists indeed that, that are casting bronze and you have some probably integrated in the household, some for the elites and then some in the house. You maybe have somebody that concentrated on, on the axis on this common artifacts for everyday life, so to speak. And then these were specific for weapons and ornaments.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

So you get the weapons and ornaments. That was really interesting what you highlighted there about, you know, kind of artifacts for everyday life. So do we get a sense that, you know, these Bronze Age artifacts are being created, let's say, like axes and then could they almost be spread across the community to like an everyday farmer so that they would have access to a new kind of metal axe that they could go about doing their work? Or was it very much a case, do we think that even these axes were kept to the highest in society?

[Professor Johan Ling]

Well, I think the key here is that, I mean, you have elites that control the flow of metal, that control the flow of copper and tin that comes in. But they want this out in the system. They want these farmers, these herders or everybody to use this artifact or this metal. So therefore it's widely distributed to some sense for tools and other things. But what we can see is that the tools has a wider spread than, for instance, weapons and ornaments that are more kept held in graves or confined in the areas with, with best agropastural production, which is very important here, that, I mean, the, the, the agropastural product production is the foundation for these families to have surplus from and thereby organize trade and, you know, pay for the boats, pay for the crew, or I mean, to be simple, while they are keen also to see that this material comes out in the society as a whole. So therefore you see a spread of these, you know, these common or practical tools much more than the Weapons are spreading or ornaments.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

Really interesting what you mentioned there about, you know, kind of paying for the boats or the crews, given how important, you know, those boats were for the bringing in of materials. Johan, do we have any idea from the surviving archaeology what these Nordic Bronze Age ports would have looked like?

[Professor Johan Ling]

Well, they are probably natural ports. Knowing that the boats we are dealing with here are more or less canal like boats. We are basing that on probably, you know, the yachtspring boat in Denmark that are very indeed similar, although dated to the early Iron Age or transition our Bronze Age, early Iron Age. It's very similar indeed to the boats depicted on the rock art. And it's so complex, composite boat, pine pit boat that it couldn't be, you know, it didn't erect in a day. It has a long history and it has very much similarities to the plankbuild boat on the British Isles that are indeed earlier that I found. I mean the ferry boats, et cetera and all those. But still it seems to be more seaworthy in a sense. We have modeled that boat and using both in a simulation, we have made a 3D reconstruction of it and also model it against data from wind currents, depth, etc. What you call ocean modeling. And therefore we can very specifically show its capacity that in good weather condition, with 1816 paddlers you can go about 100 and even more kilometers a day, but then in bad weather conditions it's less. And then all in all, I mean, therefore you could probably keep an all in all paddling eight hours a day, about 80km or so. The ones on these boats, they are like the hockey team, they are the soccer team, they are the. I mean they are the warriors. They're the one that. And they have a chance then to come out, see other people interact with. In a way it's a sort of academy also. You have to qualify, you have to be initiated. And this is something probably that was a driver in this society. Instead of sitting home with your mother and the goat in the farmstead, you would rather be on the boat with these other trained colleagues, so to speak.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

I guess you could imagine like Nordic Bronze Age equivalence of boat races as well between communities.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Indeed. And I think that is what we very much see on the rock. I mean similar as you have in other maritime societies in the Pacific Maori or, or also Hawaii or Solomon Islands. We can take it also with British Columbia, with the Haida Indians, that interesting enough, had boats that are similar in length and width, although done with a dugout. You know, they have these large cedar Trees, but they have the same proportion as the Yorkshire Springs boat. They took these boats 2000 km sometimes each season to trade, raid and intimidate. They had a slave economy. So they were going to both Alaska and all the way actually to Southern California to intimidate, trade and raid when the ethnographers came. This is late, though, in history, but they call them the Vikings from the West Coast. But fascinating and also important to compare to other maritime cultures in time and space.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

And the building of a boat, how important that could be to a community, like with the ancient Polynesians learning about how central it is, the building of the boat together.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Yeah. And that was probably also, you know, in parallel with rituals, you know, all the way. And therefore, we think maybe the parts of the rock art could have done in part partly when you, when you actually built the boat as a magical counterpart, to enrich the boat with magic, so to speak, because we see rock art on higher ground, favorable for where you have a lot, had a lot of forest, and then they drip down to the seashore, so to speak. We think it goes from, you know, cutting down the trees, carving out of the boats, and then finally launching the boat in a highly ritualistic manner.

[Greg Jenner]

Hello, Greg Jenner here, host of youf're Dead to Me. In my new family friendly podcast series, Dead Funny History, historical figures come back to life for just about long enough to argue with me, tell us their life stories, and sometimes get on my nerves. There's 15 lovely episodes to unwrap, including the life of Ramses the Great Josephine Baker and the history of football, plus much, much more. So this Christmas, give your ears a treat. With Dead Funny History. You can find it in the you're Dead to me feed on BBC.com or wherever you get your podcasts.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

I mean, you read what my next question was going to be, which was, I mean, whereabouts in Scandinavia do we find large concentrations of rock art dating to this time? We'll answer that and then kind of explain to us what we should be envisaging with this rock art and how it's created.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Yeah, well, we find them in coastal areas, I mean, the most dense area, or the one west coast in Sweden, but also in that sense the east coast of Norway that merge there also. But all coastal area, coastal Scania area, the region close to Stockholm and, and also the region in, in the Baltic, the Swedish region, where coastal air. So they are a majority are, are made in this coastal regions. They're dominated by ships, warriors, metals, and also cosmopolitan codes, you can say. Fascinating enough we can see a peak in the rock art production when we have a peak in metal circulation. Therefore, we strongly believe that this is a praxis related to long distance exchange of metal. And more specifically, the groups that executed this trade, that do this, probably to initiate, to learn, to discuss also how to do these undertakings. It's. You can say, in ancient Greece, you had this rhetorics that you learned and you're supposed to, okay, what do you do if this happens? And only like looking at an image as a boat, if you have bad weather, how do you act? And just point to a boat on the rock art to say, okay, I will do this and this do. I think they are, they are, they are preparing these journeys, and rock art is a part of that. Partly initiate the crew, but partly to mentally prepare these journeys that are a dangerous. You meeting the sea and different weather, but even worse, you meeting other human groups and how to handle that, how to communicate with them, how to fight with them. Again, looking at British Columbia, I know that they had really hostile chiefdoms, maritime chiefdoms that were constantly at war. And they, instead of coastal hug, these groups were moving out as far to the sea in order to not encounter other groups was. That's the most difficult part. Therefore, rock art is probably very close to what you call magic in that sense, magic for, you know, making sure that you can realize these journeys.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

I was also going to say they sound almost like, you know, the equivalent of training manuals, as you say, for people learning the scenes and what to do if they were going on one of these voyages and those artistic depictions of those various events. Do we know much about how they created the rock art? Because if someone mentions rock art to me, I do think of the Stone Age. I do think of someone or a whole community taking hours, days, weeks out of their routine with a small hammer, stone in hand, and just bashing it against a rock again and again. Do we have any idea what the Nordic Bronze Age style was? I guess how they did it?

[Professor Johan Ling]

Well, interesting enough, we have new data on that. We have a new project tracing the carvers, it's called where we have been able to forward that. And as you said, for a long time, you have argued that you have done it with a direct technique, with stone. Right? And therefore a stone type. I mean, most of the rock art are made in granite in the west coast. And therefore you need a stone that is harder than that. Amphibolite or quartzite or quartz, so to speak. But there are some details in the rock art I Mean some of the crew strokes you do are millimeters from each other. And we can now show also that with experiments, but also with laser scanning and other things that you must have outlined the rock art with bronze. And we have made experiments on it. And instead of taking like 10 hours to make a boat, we come down in half an hour. Less than that with bronze. Of course, this shows that bronze is vanishing when you do this little depending on the techniques you have. But if you heat up parts of the rock, drain it and then put water on it and then use bronze, then you can do it in a much faster way. And then we find also we can detect details in the outline of the rock art that could not be made by. They're so specific and sharp. So they made a sharp tool. So this qualifies stone or bone. We have a professor in granite who has said it must be metal. So it's interesting that you use metal to make the rock art in this phase. And it's almost like consumption. Consumption or what you call potlash. Probably also that okay, we can afford, we have bronze, they can be used for this as well. To show also that these are groups that are on a higher rank than others in society, isn't it?

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

And just, I mean, such a rich concentration. And I can see pictures of birds, obviously boats, men and women, animals and ships, snakes and whales and everything like that. It really epitomizes, doesn't it, that great variety of artistic designs that they made in this rock art over centuries.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Exactly. And another analogy for the type of institution that does this, I mean, are organizing trade or the ones on board are what you call secret societies that you find in time and space in the world. And they are oftenly making rock art. They are controlling trade, they have networks of trade and they use power symbols and magic. And also they control religion and magic in society. It's one of the control to show that we have the control of religion and magic. You do not have that. This makes us exclusive. We can do these long distance journeys, we can meet other people abroad. We can learn. You don't have that, you don't qualify, which was very much the case in North America. You have examples of societies making rock art in accordance with long distance exchange, with dangerous undertakings, with warfare. For instance, Sitting Bull made rock art before the Battle of Little Bittern.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

Yeah, I'm glad you mentioned religion, Johann, because I feel I need to ask about that now, as we haven't covered it too much so far. Do we have much idea then alongside the rock art from the surviving artifacts that we have and the settlement structures and the importance of metals. Do we have any idea what spiritual beliefs these Nordic Bronze Age communities had?

[Professor Johan Ling]

Well, there are two theories about it. Some scholars argue that you don't depict gods, others say they do. It's a big debate, I mean, basically between probably, you know, Fleming Cowell, who has written an entire book, a Bronze Age religion versus Christian Christians, that argue that you have person of high gods, you have the twin rulers depicted on the rock art. And then in between we have Timothy Earl, they say that, well, these are elite societies, they don't flesh out gods on the panels. This is something you control. And it's an interesting topic in that sense. But otherwise, I mean, religion has been the one we have made most speculation on in terms of Bronze Age northern Europe, but not so much the other features. Again, this is so typical archaeology when you don't have an answer. Well, it's religion, you say it's ritual, but all in all we can say that the religion is probably is related to, in general to Indo European aspects of religion from that phase where you have certain strands that are denoted both in the rock art and also in the funerals and other phenomena, so to speak. But the important thing here is that the religion is controlled by the elites, right? And therefore, you know, the debate is wherever you flash them out on the panels on the rock or not, or if there is other symbols, specifically maybe this ornamentation that you see on the bronzes, that they are more elitistic, they are more secret. And interesting enough, you never see these on the rocks.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

Because I've also heard a lot when it comes to Nordic Bronze Age religion and also I guess aligning with what people see in other Bronze Age cultures, the importance of the sun in religion and whether there was a sun cult. And I've also got in my notes this amazing artifact called the Trondhelm chariot, which I must ask about.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Indeed. I mean, you can say celestial orientated, the sun, the moon and other features. And you can see it as you see in both the bronze artifacts, but also on the rock art. So therefore some scholars, as Fleming Cowell and others argue that this is what you flesh out, not personified gods, rather the ones that try to position the self in society in relation to the celestial symbols as for the sun. And it's very clear as you say, that it seems like the religion is sun orientated and it has, I mean, symbolical reasons, but also practical reasons because you. It's fascinating to see oftenly with these depictions of boats that you see a sun symbol or sometimes a cup marker, you think a sun symbol, most probably. Or we can say logically, these societies, they use sun for navigation. This is something when you navigate during the day, that also the Vikings did, that you take, that you use. So the sun is not only a symbol for the religious realm, it also has a practical function in that sense.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

Because I would always think of the sun, obviously, the importance for growing crops and so on. But once again you bring it back, Johan, to that other key aspect of the Nordic Bronze Age, which we go back to again and again, which is the maritime part of it, and the seafaring and navigation and all that.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Of course, I won't deny this with the corpse and the seasons, but still it could have other interesting functions as well.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

Could you also mention to us what this stunning artifact is, the Drondhelm chariot? Because it seems if anyone types in the Nordic Bronze Age, they will probably see this striking artifact first and foremost.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Well, it's a fascinating. You can say it's a chariot with two horses pulling a disc that on the one side has gold and the one side bronze. And you think it represent the travel of the sun and the moon in a circuit, so to speak. Fascinating. I heard the story how it was found. It was found by a farmer's son and he played with it in his bathtub.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

Amazing.

[Professor Johan Ling]

And then some Brody reported to some antique scholars and said, well, look, but it's very fascinating and also show how driven the bronze craft is, how driven you are. You can make these very detailed features and looking at the horse's eyes and other things, it's probably a manifesto of this sun orientated religion that you have in the Bronze Age. And we see other related phenomena to that as well.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

We could talk about so many other amazing examples of splendid artifacts from the Nordic Bronze Age. I will ask about one other, which kind of brings us back to the military, but at the same time, maybe not. It's an extraordinary artifact. I saw like kind of this gold helmet, but it almost has horns on it. Naturally, with the Vikings there's that big factoid that the Vikings didn't have horned helmets. But you seem to have evidence of a horned helmet in this pre Viking Bronze Age society.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Yeah, indeed. I mean, here's one example, the Vixer helmets, but also on the rock art. So therefore, again, it is this old notion that is the Viking Age, starting with the Bronze Age. Fascinating. With these Vixer helmets there are two pairs and therefore people are arguing that this could also symbolize the twin rulers, the Indo European notion of. Of two leaders, one more ritualistic and one more politic, so to speak. And that we see other features also on the rock art that could be related to that phenomena. But these helmets are extraordinary and they are about 1000 BC. You see them also depicted in the Iberian Bronze Age on the warrior stele helmets with horns, also on Sardinia on these figurines. But the most similar analogy are the Iberian warriors tale, so to speak. And they show also how. I mean, there's also typical feature for what you call secret societies using. You know, that there are groups that has ritual perplexity that show that they are in contact with the supernatural world. They control that contact, they travel, they meet other groups, also elites that has this contact and that the travels are a part of showing that they're exclusive and they're in contact with both the supernatural and other things that qualify them to this position.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

Johan, this has all been so, so interesting. I wish I had time to ask so many more questions. Next up was going to be burial and examples like the Is it the Egdved Girl or Extraordinary Case. I just don't think we quite have time to do it today, but it can be a topic for another episode in the future, I think. To wrap this all up, obviously we talked about like these amazing Bronze Age societies, what we know. But do we know much about like the coming of iron and the end of the Bronze Age in Scandinavia in these Nordic societies?

[Professor Johan Ling]

Well, we know that when iron comes in to play, so to speak, this entire system cracks up. Before you have had a system based on elite families that organize long distance trade off copper and tin. Here you have it locally. So for a while it becomes more internal and in a way also more equal in that sense. But then it starts to evolve again. And in the Viking Age you have other demands. For instance, you have the silver then, of course, and also other exotica. But iron replaces this. I mean forge metal, I mean bronze for tools and weapons specifically when you. You're able to do what you call steel actually, or it's like you mix charcoal with iron. Iron per se is less effective than bronze, but when you do steel, that's the deal. But bronze is close to steel, which is fascinating. It's a fascinating material.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

Well, Johan, you have given us a wonderful overview of the Nordic Bronze Age. And of course we can talk about so much more if we had the time, but sadly we do not. Lastly, you've done so many projects around this over the years. What are you working on currently?

[Professor Johan Ling]

Currently I have one major project, the maritime encounters where we try to look at the trade exchange and warfare along the Atlantic facade. And specifically we try to forward aspects on mobility, on sourcing of copper. We are excavating mines in Iberia, we are looking in more closely to the Great Orme. We are looking at the tin, which is a key thing here and that you on the British Isles are, are sitting on that everybody would need. I mean we speak about here, we speak about, you know, all this copper they imported, but think about the 10% for steel.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

Yes.

[Professor Johan Ling]

So there are also tonnage, tonnage, tonnage of tin. And now later analysis has shown that the tin is going all the way to the East Mediterranean world. And fascinating enough is where you find most artifacts of tin. You have the Uluburum for instance, that has at least one tonnage of tin that match sources in Cornwall. So showing again how important long distance exchange were in the Bronze Age and also the tin in this.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

Britain certainly got lucky with tin in the Bronze Age, didn't they? Johan? This has been absolutely great. It just goes to me to say thank you so much for taking the time to come on the podcast today.

[Professor Johan Ling]

Thank you.

[Host (possibly a History Hit podcast host)]

Well, there you go. There was Professor Johann Ling talking you through the story of the Nordic Bronze Age. An amazing story. It deserves to be better known. So I really do hope you enjoyed the episode. Thank you for listening. Please follow the ancients on Spotify or wherever you get your podcasts. That really helps us and you'll be doing us a big favour if you'd also be kind enough to leave us a rating as well, where we'd really appreciate that. Now don't forget, you can also listen to us and all of Historyhit's podcasts ad free and watch hundreds of TV documentaries when you [e-mail] subscribe. That's all from me. I'll see you in the next episode.

[Greg Jenner]

Hello, Greg Jenner here, host of youf're Dead to Me. In my new family friendly podcast series, Dead Funny History, historical figures come back to life for just about long enough to argue with me, tell us their life stories and sometimes get on my nerves. There's 15 lovely episodes to unwrap, including the life of Ramsay the Great, Josephine Baker and the history of football, plus much, much more. So this Christmas, give your ears a treat with Dead Funny History. You can find it in the youe're Dead to me feed on BBC.com or wherever you get your podcasts.