105. Light Bulbs

Summary

Podcast Summary: The Economics of Everyday Things – Light Bulbs

Host: Zachary Crockett (Freakonomics Radio Network)
Guests: Jane Brox (author), Marcus Krajewski (historian), Heather Dillon (mechanical engineering professor)
Episode Date: September 8, 2025

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Overview

This episode delves into the surprising and illuminating (pun intended) history and economics of the humble light bulb. Journalist Zachary Crockett explores why early light bulbs—like the famous Centennial Light—lasted over a century, while modern bulbs typically don’t. The discussion covers the shift from candles to electrical bulbs, technological innovation, planned obsolescence, and the modern revolution in LED lighting. The narrative weaves together stories of invention, corporate intrigue, and the ongoing quest for better, longer-lasting, and more efficient sources of light.

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Key Discussion Points & Insights

1. The Endurance of the Centennial Light Bulb (00:51–01:45)

• Centennial Light: Crockett begins with the story of the Centennial Light, a bulb in Livermore, California, that's been burning for 124 years.
  • “It gives off considerably less light than a single candle… But that’s partly because this little bulb… has been burning almost continuously for 124 years.” — Zachary Crockett (00:51)
• Raises the central question: Why don’t modern light bulbs last as long?

2. Early Human Efforts to Master Light (02:18–04:01)

• Historical Lighting: Jane Brox explains how for most of history, light meant candles or oil lamps, and substantial artificial light was a privilege.
  • “Certain craftspeople were not allowed to work after dark… Night just shut down the world.” — Jane Brox (02:59)
• Edison and his contemporaries set out to find a safer, more widespread solution for indoor lighting.

3. Edison and the Birth of the Electrical Grid (04:01–05:18)

• Edison’s Innovation: Edison refined the incandescent bulb and built the first large-scale electrical distribution systems.
  • “He saw that he had not only to perfect a light bulb, he had to perfect a system of distributing that light.” — Jane Brox (05:18)
• Early bulbs were costly—about $30 each in today’s dollars.

4. Light Bulbs as Aspirational and Transformative (05:30–06:13)

• Electrification: By the late 1920s, ~70% of American homes had electricity, and lighting became a symbol of progress and aspiration.
  • “People would turn on all the lights in the house and drive away and just look back… That’s what they were waiting for.” — Jane Brox (05:36)

5. The Phoebus Cartel and Planned Obsolescence (06:23–09:48)

• Longevity Becomes a Problem: Light bulbs lasting 2,500 hours proved problematic for manufacturers—customers didn’t need new ones often enough.
  • “For the marketing department, of course, it’s a challenge, because… why should you go for another one?” — Marcus Krajewski (06:50)
• Phoebus Cartel: In 1924, major companies colluded to intentionally reduce bulb lifespan to just 1,000 hours to spur sales.
  • “Their goal is to produce light bulbs all over the world which stop working after 1,000 hours. That’s explicitly the goal of this committee.” — Marcus Krajewski (08:11)
  • Engineers were ordered to “implement an intended error into the technology” — changing filament designs to force bulbs to burn out sooner (08:42).
• Cartel collapsed during WWII; no evidence of continued organized obsolescence after 1940.

6. The Modern Era: LED Revolution (14:58–21:35)

• Ban on Incandescents: By late 2023, conventional incandescent bulbs were largely banned in the U.S.
• LED Bulbs: Professor Heather Dillon describes the technological leap with LEDs—energy efficient, longer-lived, but with new complexities.
  • “One of the challenges with traditional incandescent products is that they generated a lot of heat… that’s basically the core of what made an incandescent light bulb inefficient.” — Heather Dillon (15:29)
  • Compact Fluorescents (CFLs) offered efficiency but poor light quality and popularity.
  • LEDs weren't widely adopted until price and light quality improved in the early 2000s, thanks in part to rigorous testing and collective engineering effort.
    • “There was one study we did at one point where we basically put lighting products in a blender…” — Heather Dillon (17:26)
  • Mass adoption: U.S. households using LEDs jumped from 4% (2015) to nearly 50% (2020). Cost dropped from $10+ to $3 per bulb.
    • “One of the benchmarks… was to get the price under $10. And now you can buy one for much closer to $3.” — Heather Dillon (18:48)
  • Energy savings: LEDs use less than 10 watts compared to 60–100 watts for incandescents, offering ~$200/year savings per average household.
    • “$200 a year… that’s not trivial for a lot of families.” — Heather Dillon (19:28)

Lifespan Controversy

• Reported Life vs. Real-World Use: LEDs are advertised to last 30–50,000 hours (up to 17 years at 8 hours/day), but real lifespan is affected by electronic components failing, not just the light source.
  • “The LED light engine itself tends to last for a really long time. But some of the other components, the chip components… could have a failure.” — Heather Dillon (20:48)
• Skeptical View: Historian Krajewski casts doubt on these industry claims.
  • “If the lifespan of an LED light comes with 50,000 hours, you have to be a bookkeeper… So that’s pure fiction. That’s all I want to say.” — Marcus Krajewski (21:15)

7. The Future and Romanticism of Light (21:35–22:58)

• Old vs. New: LEDs are practical and efficient, but even the great Centennial Light, still technically glowing, is now a ghost of its former self.
  • “It’s on such a low voltage, I would even doubt that you can consider it as a working light bulb.” — Marcus Krajewski (22:04)
• Sentimental Note: Jane Brox ends the show with a wistful take on the enduring appeal of flame.
  • “I still love a flame… You can sit there and meditate on a flame for a long time. You can’t really do that with an electric bulb.” — Jane Brox (22:58)

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Notable Quotes & Memorable Moments

• Zachary Crockett (on Centennial Light):
  • “It doesn’t look too impressive… But it’s been burning almost continuously for 124 years.” (00:51)
• Jane Brox (on aspirations):
  • “People would… just look back at their house with the windows fully lit, because that’s what they were waiting for.” (05:36)
• Marcus Krajewski (on planned obsolescence):
  • “The engineers… should radically rethink the product by implementing an intended error into the technology.” (08:42)
• Heather Dillon (on failures in LEDs):
  • “There’s still lots of ways [LEDs] can fail, even if the underlying technology can last for a really long time.” (20:48)
• Jane Brox (on flames):
  • “A flame has a life to it. You could sit there and meditate on a flame for a long time. You can’t really do that with an electric bulb.” (22:58)

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Timeline of Key Segments

| Timestamp | Segment | |:-------------:|------------| | 00:51–01:45 | Centennial Light and the longevity question | | 02:18–04:01 | History of artificial lighting | | 04:01–05:18 | Edison’s light bulb innovation & grid | | 05:30–06:13 | Electrification as a status symbol | | 06:23–09:48 | Phoebus Cartel & planned obsolescence | | 14:58–16:31 | LED development & adoption | | 18:18–19:51 | Energy and cost savings of LEDs | | 20:12–21:35 | Lifespan controversy & Krajewski’s skepticism | | 22:58 | Brox’s poetic closing on the value of flames |

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Tone and Originality

The episode maintains a balance of curiosity, skepticism, and narrative wit—Zachary Crockett’s inquisitive yet approachable tone creates an accessible tour through the economics and human stories behind everyday lighting. Expert guests bring historical gravitas, technical depth, and even occasional nostalgia for the lost magic of a dancing candle flame.

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Takeaways

• Technological and market forces have dramatically shaped light bulb history.
• Planned obsolescence was a real—though short-lived—strategy to boost sales.
• Modern LEDs mark a true leap in efficiency and (potential) lifespan, though the true longevity may be optimistic.
• Despite innovation, some still prefer the ambiance and romance of candlelight.

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For those interested in the hidden side of everyday things—the light bulb proves there’s always a fascinating story behind even the simplest inventions.

Transcript

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[Zachary Crockett]

Inside of a fire station in Livermore, California, there's a weird looking pear shaped light bulb dangling from an electrical cord. It doesn't look too impressive. It gives off considerably less light than a single candle on a birthday cake. But that's partly because this little bulb, known as the Centennial Light, has been burning almost continuously for 124 years. It stayed alive through two world wars, the first moon landing, and the rise of cell phones and the Internet. In modern life, it's hard to imagine anything we own lasting more than a century, let alone a light bulb. So the Centennial Light raises a if we could build a hundred year light bulb at the turn of the 20th century, why do modern light bulbs only last a fraction of its lifespan?

[Heather Dillon]

You have a much more complicated product at the end of the day, so there can be more failure points which might reduce the lifespan. There's always these trade offs with light bulbs.

[Zachary Crockett]

For the Freakonomics Radio Network, this is the economics of everyday things. I'm Zachary Crockett. Today Light Bulbs it's easy to take the light bulbs in our homes for granted. Most of us don't even think about them until they need to be replaced. But reliable light wasn't always easy to come by.

[Jane Brocks]

For so much of human history, light was just either a candle or a lamp with some kind of horn or glass cover and a flame that had to be lit.

[Zachary Crockett]

That's Jane Brocks. She's the author of the 2010 book the Evolution of Artificial Light.

[Jane Brocks]

The wealthy had beeswax candles which, you know, burned brightly and evenly and did not stink. The poor had their tallow, which stank and would blow out and had to be constantly tended.

[Zachary Crockett]

In these early times, most business stopped at nightfall.

[Jane Brocks]

Certain craftspeople were not allowed to work after dark because the light was so dim that it would compromise their work. Night just shut down the world. There was a commercial pressure to extend the day.

[Zachary Crockett]

For centuries, we tried to find ways to make flames last longer. Candles eventually gave way to oil, kerosene and gas powered lamps. But these solutions still came with limitations. And a new source of light emerged as a promising electricity.

[Jane Brocks]

In the late 18th century, early 19th century, experiments around all kinds of electrical things were going on. There was the invention of the arc light, an arc of light which went between carbon, but it was too bright for a lot of applications. You couldn't bring it indoors. So there was this great desire to find a more intimate light for indoor applications.

[Zachary Crockett]

Throughout the 1800s, many inventors worked on early iterations of the light bulb. In the end, it was the self taught American businessman, Thomas Edison who achieved the most success.

[Jane Brocks]

Thomas Edison came in in 1879 and said, you know, I see it all here. And he sort of picked up on all the experiments that had gone before him.

[Zachary Crockett]

Edison's incandescent light bulb worked by passing an electric current through a thin filament enclosed in a vacuum sealed glass bulb. Electrical current heated the filament until it glowed. In his Menlo park lab, Edison tested thousands of different filaments, various woods, tarred cotton, and even pomegranate peels before settling on carbon. He patented his light bulb in 1880 and proceeded to sell thousands of them for $1 apiece, around $30 in today's money. Other manufacturers soon developed their own designs and mass produced light bulbs for half the cost. But Edison's real feat was designing an electrical grid that could bring this new technology to households all over the country.

[Jane Brocks]

He saw that he had not only to perfect a light bulb, he had to perfect a system of distributing that light. He saw it as an urban system working through a city.

[Zachary Crockett]

By the late 1920s, nearly 7 in 10American households had electricity.

[Jane Brocks]

When people finally got light in their farmhouses, they would turn on all the lights in the house and drive away and just look back at their house with the windows fully lit, because that's what they were waiting for. It became an aspiration.

[Zachary Crockett]

That aspiration also played out abroad. In Europe, new companies were formed using General Electric's patents, as well as competing designs from inventors like Joseph Swan.

[Jane Brocks]

There was lots of competition in all different companies and lots of advertising about the attributes of one electric bulb over another.

[Zachary Crockett]

All of this competition pushed light bulb manufacturers to create a better product. And the biggest selling point was the longevity of the bulb.

[Marcus Krajewski]

The usual lifespan of a light bulb was about 1,500 to 2,500 hours.

[Zachary Crockett]

Marcus Krajewski is a philosopher and historian of Technology at the University of Basel in Switzerland, who has written about light bulbs. He says that while longer lasting light bulbs were great for consumers, they posed a problem for the companies that made them.

[Marcus Krajewski]

On the one hand, engineers are striving for the best technological product. And in that sense, longevity is something you would like to reach. But for the marketing department, of course, it's a challenge, because how would you convince the consumer that he or she should substitute a fully functioning item? If it's still burning or glowing, why should you go for another one?

[Zachary Crockett]

Essentially, says Krajewski, light bulbs got too good. And on Christmas Eve of 1924, the CEOs of all the big light bulb companies gathered at a nice hotel in Switzerland and decided to do something about it.

[Marcus Krajewski]

All of them had close ties and they were communicating with each other. And they realized, well, if we are competing to each other, we would ruin each other. So why don't we cooperate? On a not so visible level, what happens if we would intentionally reduce the lifespan?

[Zachary Crockett]

These companies formed an organization known as the Phoebus Cartel, and they set out to cut the lifespan of the light bulb in half.

[Marcus Krajewski]

Their goal is to produce light bulbs all over the world which stop working after 1000 hours. That's explicitly the goal of this committee.

[Zachary Crockett]

The tactic of intentionally limiting the usable life of a product, now known as planned obsolescence, was a novel concept at the time. The cartel positioned the change as a trade off in achieving brighter and more efficient light bulbs. But Krajewski says their real motive was to drive more sales.

[Marcus Krajewski]

The engineers in the companies received the order by their CEOs that they should radically rethink the product by implementing an intended error into the technology. We have to alter the glue. We have to differently prepare the filament. We have to use a contaminated element in the filament in order to let it stop working after 1000 hours.

[Zachary Crockett]

And did this effort work?

[Marcus Krajewski]

Yes, definitely. In the late 1920s, you would rarely find an autonomous producer of light bulbs anymore. So everything more or less was controlled by the cartel.

[Zachary Crockett]

The Phoebus Cartel eventually fizzled out during World War II. As it turned out, countries on the opposite side of the battlefield had trouble staying united in the boardroom. The organization's agreement was nullified in 1940.

[Marcus Krajewski]

You won't find any historical evidence for the continuation of the cartel after that anymore, but that's due to the company's archive afterwards. We don't have access to historical evidence anymore.

[Zachary Crockett]

But 100 years later, there's no indication that the light bulbs in our homes are a part of some grand conspiracy. In fact, according to some scientists, we're now in the golden age of light bulb innovation.

[Heather Dillon]

Light bulbs today have much longer lifespans than they did before. It's rare that we have evolution in a technology that offers such an order of magnitude benefit in terms of all of the upsides of some of the more modern lighting products.

[Zachary Crockett]

That's coming up. The Economics of Everyday Things is sponsored by Rula Finding a therapist online is hard enough, but finding one who actually takes your insurance? That's even harder. Ruala is a healthcare company that makes accessing affordable, high quality mental health care easier. They partner with over 100 insurance plans and match users with licensed in network therapists and psychiatrists nationwide based on their goals, preferences and background. No long wait lists, no frustrating back and forth, just personalized care that fits. Plus, Rula sticks with you throughout your journey, checking in to make sure your care is helping you move forward. Appointments are often available as soon as tomorrow and with most patients paying just $15 per session and sometimes even less, it's care that actually fits your budget too. Thousands are already using Rula for therapy that's high quality, accessible and covered by Insurance. Visit rula.com everyday to get started. After signing up, you'll be asked how you heard about them. Let them know this show sent you that's r u l a.com everyday because mental health care should work with you, not against your budget. The Economics of Everyday Things is sponsored by Mint Mobile. From new shoes to new supplies, the back to school season comes with a lot of expenses. Your wireless bill shouldn't be one of them. Ditch overpriced wireless and switch to Mint Mobile where you can get the coverage and speed you're used to, but for way less money. For a limited time, Mint mobile is offering three months of unlimited premium wireless service for 15 bucks a month. Because this school year your budget deserves a break. Get this new customer offer and your three month unlimited wireless plan for just 15 bucks a month at mintmobile.com economics that's mintmobile.com economics upfront payment of $45 required equivalent to $15 a month limited time a new customer offer for first three months only. Speeds may slow above 35 gigabytes on unlimited plan. Taxes and fees extra. See Mint Mobile for details. The Economics of Everyday Things is sponsored by Acorns. Did you know that your money could grow on its own? No, it's not magic, it's compounding. That's when your money makes more money and then that money makes even more money Acorns makes it easy to give your money a chance to grow. Acorns is the financial wellness app that helps you invest for your future, save for tomorrow and spend smarter today. Acorns makes it easy to start doing more with your money. You don't need to be a finance whiz. Acorns puts your money into an expert built portfolio to make sure you're investing wisely, not wildly. And it's an all in one easy to use app. Sign up now and Acorns will boost your new account with a $5 bonus. Investment join the over 14 million all time customers who have already saved and invested over $25 billion with Acorns. Head to acorns.com or download the Acorns app to get started. Paid non client endorsement compensation provides incentive to positively promote Acorns Tier 2 compensation provided investing involves risk. Acorns Advisors, LLC, an SEC registered investment advisor. View important [e-mail] Economics Today you're not likely to find many incandescent bulbs on store shelves in the U.S. a Department of Energy directive effectively banned them from being sold starting in late 2023. These days, it's all about the light emitting diode or led, and that's partly thanks to the efforts of people like Heather Dillon.

[Heather Dillon]

I'm a mechanical engineering professor at the University of Washington in Tacoma. Broadly, I work in the areas of energy efficiency and renewable energy. I've been doing research on lighting in particular for about 20 years.

[Zachary Crockett]

In the decades after the Phoebus cartel, incandescent bulbs continued to be the prevailing lighting option. But scientists began to think about whether the millions of light bulbs in people's homes could be more efficient.

[Heather Dillon]

One of the challenges with traditional incandescent products is that they generated a lot of heat when they converted the electricity to light. If you had a lamp with 100 watt light bulb in it, you could hold your hand over it and definitely it would be quite warm. That's basically the core of what made an incandescent light bulb inefficient because of all that heat loss.

[Zachary Crockett]

In the middle of an energy Crisis in the 1970s, a new type of bulb called the compact fluorescent lamp or CFL was developed. You might remember them as those squiggly spiral shaped light bulbs that had a harsh hue.

[Heather Dillon]

They offered a lot of energy efficiency benefits, but people didn't really like the light. I think that there was a lot of moments where people would talk about sort of the tragic quality of fluorescent lighting. You know, that icky green Color. And so the products weren't particular popular.

[Zachary Crockett]

But there was an emerging alternative called the led.

[Heather Dillon]

You can think about an LED product as a little bit more like your phone than an incandescent. LED products actually have little chips and wires and things that basically allow them to control light temperature and light quality and do so in a way that looks like a traditional light bulb to you and I.

[Zachary Crockett]

LED lights had been around since the 1960s, but mostly as small single color bulbs used in electronics like calculators, digital watches, and TVs. For decades, harnessing this technology in light bulb form was prohibitively expensive. But in 2000, a small group of scientists and engineers, including Dylan at the very beginning of her career, began to rethink the potential of LEDs. With funding from the Department of Energy, they worked closely with manufacturers to create a better light bulb picture.

[Heather Dillon]

10 or 15 engineers sitting in a dreary conference room that is lit by terrible fluorescent lighting. And they're sitting there with a whiteboard and they're charting how do we make sure that LEDs can be adopted and get the cost down as quickly as possible while not compromising any of the important things about lighting. They were getting early products. They were testing them in their own homes. They were taking them apart. There was one study we did at one point where we basically put lighting products in a blender so that we could understand what types of harmful materials might be in there. Knowing that there's this group of people who are carefully monitoring all of these lighting products, I think the manufacturers then in turn sort of built the product better when they maybe didn't have to.

[Zachary Crockett]

This group was able to steer light bulb manufacturers toward a longer lasting and more efficient product and bring the price down to compete with incandescent bulbs. Between 2015 and 2020, the percentage of American households using LEDs for most or all of their indoor lighting jumped from 4% to. To nearly 50%. A Goldman Sachs analyst called the rapid adoption of LEDs one of the fastest technology shifts in human history.

[Heather Dillon]

One of the benchmarks that they were looking for in the early days was to get the price under $10. And now you can buy one for much closer to $3.

[Zachary Crockett]

That's still a bit more expensive than incandescent bulbs were. But LEDs are far more efficient.

[Heather Dillon]

In lighting. We like to talk about lumens per watt and l, the light that you could measure, and then the watt is how much electricity or how much energy you're actually putting into the system.

[Zachary Crockett]

A standard incandescent bulb used to require 60 or even 100 watts. Today, an equivalent LED bulb uses less than 10 watts.

[Heather Dillon]

These products are a really big upgrade in terms of your power bill. So the Department of Energy has estimated that an average consumer will save over $200 per year on the cost of lighting in their home if they were to upgrade to LED products. And so 200 bucks a year, I mean, that's not trivial for a lot of families.

[Zachary Crockett]

They aren't just more energy efficient. They also last a lot longer than incandescent bulbs. Manufacturers come up with estimated lifespans for LEDs by running them in temperature controlled rooms for long periods of time. They use mathematical calculations to project the number of hours a product might last before failing.

[Heather Dillon]

They try to do some modeling and things like that. I think the truth is that it can be really hard for them to predict.

[Zachary Crockett]

The Department of Energy reports that LED light bulbs can last up to 30 times longer than incandescent bulbs. And some recent products report a lifespan of 50,000 hours, around 17 years of use at 8 hours per day. But because LED light bulbs have so many electronic components inside of them, it's not unlikely that some other part of the bulb will fail before the light itself.

[Heather Dillon]

The LED light engine itself tends to last for a really long time. But some of the other components, the chip components, the little circuit boards, if something is soldered together poorly, it could have a failure. There's still lots of ways they can fail, even if the underlying technology can last for a really long time.

[Zachary Crockett]

Marcus Trajewski, the technology historian, is skeptical of the industry's reported bulb lifespans.

[Marcus Krajewski]

If the lifespan of an LED light comes with 50,000 hours, you have to be a bookkeeper and a very meticulous one to control the lifespan of, of an led. So that's pure fiction. That's all I want to say.

[Zachary Crockett]

Even so, looking back at the era of light bulb cartels and planned obsolescence, it's hard to deny that today's products are better. And at some point, even the 124-year-old Centennial Light in that fire station in California will probably be phased out for, for a more efficient and practical led. While it's technically still glowing, the bulb now produces less than 1% of its original brightness.

[Marcus Krajewski]

The reason why it's still emitting light is it's on such a low voltage, I would even doubt that you can consider it as a working light bulb. Because it's radiating heat, maybe, but much less light.

[Zachary Crockett]

For the economics of everyday things.

[Heather Dillon]

Greetings.

[Zachary Crockett]

Greetings. I'm Zachary Crockett. This episode was produced by me and Sarah Lilly and mixed by Jeremy Johnston. We had help from Daniel Moritz Rapson and thanks to John Hunter for suggesting this topic. For more on illumination and planned obsolescence, check out the recent episode of Freakonomics Radio called why Do Candles Still Exist? You can find it wherever you get your pumpkin podcasts. We'll catch you next week.

[Jane Brocks]

I still love a flame. You know, a flame has a life to it. You could sit there and meditate on a flame for a long time. You can't really do that with an electric bulb.

[Zachary Crockett]

The Freakonomics Radio Network the Hidden side of Everything.

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[Zachary Crockett]

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Hmm.

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Guess it's time to ask about Repatha.

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[Zachary Crockett]

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