The Rest Is History, Episode 643
Rome’s Greatest Enemy: Carthage Destroyed (Part 4)
Hosts: Tom Holland & Dominic Sandbrook
Date: February 12, 2026
Episode Overview
This climactic episode of the Carthage series takes listeners through the dramatic final chapter of Rome’s epic rivalry with Carthage: the causes, siege, and ultimate destruction of Rome’s greatest enemy in the Third Punic War (149–146 BC). Tom and Dominic weave myth, memory, and grim reality to explore the psychology behind Rome’s annihilation of Carthage, the political dynamics at play, and the personal stories—both Roman and Carthaginian—that bring this ancient catastrophe to life.
Key Discussion Points & Insights
1. The Enduring Mythos: Aeneas, Dido, and Hannibal
- Virgil’s Aeneid sets the mythic framework: Dido curses Rome with "endless war" against Carthage’s descendants, interpreted as a prophecy of Hannibal’s vengeance. (00:55–05:17)
- Dominic quotes Virgil to evoke the emotional destruction of Troy, tying it to Carthage’s fate.
- Tom: “The problem for Dido is that Aeneas has this destiny that has been plotted out for him by the gods... Dido... stabs herself... but not before she has called for her descendants to nurture an undying hatred for the descendants of Aeneas.” (03:50)
2. Memory and Trauma: Rome’s Obsession with Carthage
- Hannibal, even as a memory, haunts Rome; Carthage is demonized as treacherous and cruel—“punica fides, punica fraus”—regardless of Rome’s own frequent brutalities. (05:17–09:53)
- Tom draws parallels with post-war British views of Germany.
- Tom (on postwar trauma): “However bad it was, what mattered was that the Romans... remembered it as complete devastation.” (07:51)
- Roman policy ensures Carthage’s subjugation: crushing indemnity, loss of empire, humiliating naval restrictions, dependency on Rome for foreign policy. (09:56–10:47)
3. Numidia and the Ebbing Power of Carthage
- Massinissa of Numidia, Rome’s client-ally, persistently nibbles away at Carthage’s territory with Rome’s tacit approval; Carthage can’t fight back without Roman permission. (10:47–12:56)
- Tom: “For Masinissa, this is the servant turning on the master… getting his own back…”
4. Rome’s Evolving Mediterranean Empire
- In the decades after Hannibal, Rome's power grows unchecked: lands in Spain, the crushing of Macedon at Pydna (168 BC), humiliation of Greek elites, and the rise of Roman “imperium.” (12:56–19:55)
- Tom draws an analogy to Donald Trump taking ‘Eurocrat hostages’—pointing up Roman dominance.
- Polybius, Greek historian and detainee, documents this rise and becomes close to Scipio Aemilianus, the man who will ultimately destroy Carthage.
5. Rival Roman Factions: To Spare or Destroy Carthage?
- The Scipio family, including Scipio Aemilianus, feels a responsibility towards Carthage due to past negotiations, whereas Cato the Elder relentlessly advocates destruction. (20:26–22:23)
- Tom on Cato’s vendetta: “He is as flinty and as hardcore as ever… a terrifying man.” (21:57)
- Cato visits Carthage, is shocked at its prosperity, and returns determined to destroy it.
- Tom (on Cato’s propaganda): “[He] shakes out the folds of his toga. And from his toga... a fig... He then reveals that this fig had come from Carthage... a mere three days sail from Rome.” (24:08)
- Cato ends every Senate speech: “Carthago delenda est—Carthage must be destroyed.” (25:51–26:36)
6. The Road to Annihilation: Triggers and Rationalizations
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Rome needs legal/religious justification for war; Massinissa’s provocations and Carthage’s eventual breach of treaty (by fighting without Roman consent) provide the needed pretext. (29:44–34:51)
- Tom (on Rome’s need for casus belli): “They can’t attack Carthage without a casus belli. And fortunately... they have one on hand... Masinissa.” (30:59)
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Financial motives: Carthage has just finished paying its war indemnity (no more Roman income), and its visible wealth tempts greedy Roman elites. (34:51–35:37)
- Dominic: “If the Romans want the Carthaginian wealth, they have to go and seize it.”
7. The Siege and Fall of Carthage
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Carthage desperately tries to appease Rome: sacrificing generals, handing over arms and catapults, but is ultimately ordered to evacuate the city and move 10 miles inland—their city will be razed. (36:37–39:00)
- Tom (on the city’s fate): “To lose your mother city is to lose your identity.”
- The citizenry, facing annihilation, chooses resistance. All resources are mobilized; temples become arms factories, women cut their hair for catapult ropes. (39:10–41:26)
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Despite overwhelming Roman superiority, Carthage’s formidable defenses and resourcefulness allow it to resist for several years; a grim, attritional, almost Stalingrad-like siege unfolds. (42:04–44:41)
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Scipio Aemilianus, despite being underage for consulship, is elected—universally recognized as the only leader capable of securing Roman victory. Even Cato approves. (44:41–46:19)
8. Total Destruction: The Sack of Carthage
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Under Scipio’s command, the Romans ingeniously blockade the harbor, finally starving the city. When morale crumbles, a final assault breaches Carthage. (46:46–51:58)
- Tom (on the sack): “The soldiers... clear all the opposition from each of the stories... then set the houses on fire. And you get masonry, you get beams, you get corpses... all come crashing down into the streets.” (49:36)
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Grisly aftermath: streets choked with the dead; survivors enslaved (c. 50,000 people); temples, libraries, and homes destroyed or looted. Only an agricultural manual is preserved for Rome. (53:29–54:45)
- Tom (on loss of history): “So we have nothing, we have no histories written by the Carthaginians... We only have one side. We only have the Roman side.” (54:46)
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Scipio weeps for his enemies, reciting Homer on the inescapability of ruin for all mortal states—including Rome. (57:36–58:45)
Notable Quotes & Memorable Moments
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On Roman psychological scars:
“However bad it was, what mattered was that the Romans, in the wake of Hannibal's war, remembered it as complete devastation.”
—Tom Holland (07:51) -
On justification for conquest:
“They can’t attack Carthage without a casus belli. And fortunately... they have one on hand because this is Massinissa.”
—Tom Holland (30:59) -
On the annihilation of Carthage:
“To destroy the mother city of a people effectively is to destroy the people.”
—Tom Holland (29:44) -
Cato’s infamous refrain:
“Carthago delenda est—Carthage must be destroyed.”
—Cato the Elder, frequently cited by Tom and Dominic (25:51–26:36) -
On the erasure of Carthaginian voices:
“We have nothing, we have no histories written by the Carthaginians… We only have the Roman side.”
—Tom Holland (54:46) -
Scipio’s reflection at the ruins:
“A day will come when sacred Troy shall perish, and Priam and his people all be slain… [Scipio] pondered how all things that are mortal must fall, he dreaded how Rome, too, would fall.”
—Polybius, as recounted by Tom (58:17)
Important Segment Timestamps
- Mythic beginnings (Aeneid, Dido’s curse): 00:55–05:17
- Trauma of the Second Punic War: 06:28–09:53
- Subjugation of Carthage post-Hannibal: 09:53–12:56
- Rise of Roman power abroad (Spain, Greece, Macedon): 12:56–19:55
- The Scipio dynasty and Polybius: 17:24–20:26
- Cato’s campaign for Carthage’s destruction: 21:56–26:36
- Senate debate, Roman motives for war: 29:44–34:51
- Carthage’s last attempts to appease Rome: 36:37–39:00
- Final siege and resistance: 41:26–44:41
- Scipio Aemilianus appointed; siege ends: 44:41–53:29
- Carthage obliterated; legacy and Polybius’ account: 53:29–58:45
Tone & Style
Tom and Dominic navigate the episode with a mixture of erudition, black humor, and emotional resonance. They open with literary drama, infuse analysis with modern analogies (e.g. Germany after WW2, Trump and Eurocrats), and maintain a sense of tragic inevitability. The tragic weight and brutality of the story are ever-present, but so is an undercurrent of wry comment on power, morality, and historical memory.