← Everything Everywhere Daily: History, Science, Geography & More
Everything Everywhere Daily: History, Science, Geography & More
The Origins of the Federal Reserve
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In 1913, the United States created its third national bank. Unlike the previous two, this bank was organized in a completely different manner. Its structure was designed to avoid the problems of the previous national banks. Also unlike the other national banks, this one was not subject to an open and lengthy public debate. There was actually a fair amount of secrecy involved. Learn more about the creation of the Federal Reserve and the very odd way it was created on this episode of Everything Everywhere Daily. This episode is sponsored by Quints. The holiday season is upon us and that means buying gifts for friends and family. So why not get something that's top tier but affordable? That's where Quince comes in. Quince has great items like $50 Mongolian cashmere sweaters that feel like an everyday luxury and wool coats that are equal part stylish and durable. And you'll pay a fraction of what you would from other retailers and their prices are literally listed on the Quince website. I just got an Australian merino wool sweater that looks great and cost only half of what it would have if I had bought it somewhere else. By partnering directly with ethical factories and top artisans, Quince cuts out the middleman to deliver premium quality ET at half the cost of similar brands and often even bigger discounts. Give and get timeless quality staples that last this season with quince. Go to quince.com daily for free shipping on your order and 365 day returns. Now available in Canada too. That's Q U I-N-C-E.com daily free shipping and 365 day returns. Quince.com daily this episode is sponsored by Mint Mobile. The reality is that smartphones and their associated mobile plans have become an indispensable part of the modern world. You almost can't get by without one. So if you have to have a monthly plan, why spend any more than you need to? That's why I recommend Mint Mobile. All their plans come with high speed data and unlimited talk and text delivered on the nation's largest 5G network. You can use your current phone, current phone number and keep all of your current contacts. Nothing has to change except the amount you pay. At Mint Mobile their favorite word is no. No contracts, no monthly bills, no overages, no hidden fees and no bs. Ready to say yes to saying no? Make the switch@mintmobile.comeed that's mintmobile.comeed upfront payment of $45 required, equivalent to $15 a month limited time. New customer offer for first 3 months only. Speeds may slow above 35gb on unlimited plan taxes and fees extra. See Mint Mobile for details. If you remember back to my previous episode on the subject, America had not one, but two different national banks in the 19th century. The First National bank of the United States was established in 1791 and lasted for 20 years until its charter explod expired and wasn't renewed. The Second National bank of the United States was established in 1816 and fell victim to the same fate after 20 years when its charter wasn't renewed. After the demise of the Second bank of the United States, the country entered a period known as the Free Banking Era. During this period, banks were chartered by individual states, each issuing its own banknotes backed by different assets, notes circulated at discounts depending on the perceived soundness of the issuing bank, and bank failures were common during panics. The Civil War brought partial nationalization. The national banking Acts of 1863 and 1864 created federally chartered national banks that issued uniform national currency backed by US Government bonds. However, there was still no lender of last resort, no coordinated money policy, and no central authority to manage liquidity. Seasonal interest rate spikes, reoccurring bank runs and major bank panics exposed the system's instability. Bank panics became a major problem after the Civil War. There were panics in 1873-1884-1890-1893, 1896 and finally one in 1907. The panic of 1907 was a major financial crisis triggered by a failed attempt to corner the stock of the United Copper Company, which in turn led to runs on New York trust companies, causing widespread bank withdrawals and a collapse of credit. With no central bank to supply emergency liquidity, the crisis was halted only after J.P. morgan personally organized private rescue funds. The panic of 1907 was the straw that broke the camel's back for the banking industry. The crisis convinced many political and business leaders that the country needed a permanent lender of last resort and a more flexible money supply. So once again the idea of a central bank was seriously considered. However, there was a problem. The reason the previous two banks never had their charters renewed was that a deep seated suspicion about banks and bankers had permeated American culture ever since its founding. Many Americans in the late 18th and early 19th centuries believed that concentrated financial power posed a threat to individual liberty and republican self government. A national bank by definition centralizes credit and currency in a single institution. To Jeffersonian and later Jacksonian thinkers, this looked like a recreation of the British financial system, which they associated with aristocracy, corruption and undue influence by wealthy creditors. Another objection was simply constitutional. The Constitution never explicitly granted Congress the power to charter a bank, so strict constructionists argued that such an institution was unconstitutional. Alexander Hamilton defended the first bank of the United States by invoking the Necessary and Proper Clause. Still, opponents such as James Madison and Thomas Jefferson insisted that the federal government was limited to enumerated powers and that banking should be a state level function. Farmers, small merchants and debtors worried that a central bank, typically controlled by urban financiers, would pursue tight money policies that favored creditors over borrowers. The first and second banks of the United States could, by redeeming state banknotes for gold or silver, force local banks to contract credit. Regional and sectional politics added yet another layer. The early United States was economically diverse and many states jealously guarded their own banks and currencies. A national bank headquartered in Philadelphia or New York appeared to give the Northeast disproportionate power over, say, the south and the West. It was in this environment that bankers and politicians who sought to establish a new central bank had to work. The National Monetary Commission was a bipartisan body established by Congress in 1908 following the Panic of 1907 to examine domestic and international banking and currency systems and recommend reforms to prevent future financial crises. It was led by Senator Nelson Aldrich of rhode Island. In November 1910, Aldrich and the National Monetary Commission secretly met with a small group of leading bankers and financial experts at the Jekyll Island Club off the coast of Georgia. Among the attendees were the Assistant Secretary of the treasury, representatives from J.P. morgan & Company, as well as National Citibank of New York and Bankers Trust Company of New York. This meeting has become infamous because of the secrecy surrounding it. The attendees traveled under assumed names and avoided the media and even told the club staff that they were only there on a duck hunt. The secrecy was intentional because if it became public that top Wall street bankers were designing the country's monetary system, the plan would be politically doomed. Over the course of roughly a week, they drafted what became known as the Aldrich Plan, which envisioned a single privately controlled central banking institution called the National Reserve association, which with regional branches. Although the Aldrich Plan never became law, it served as the intellectual foundation for the Federal Reserve Act. When Democrats won the 1912 election, they rejected Aldrich's proposal as too dominated by Wall Street. But still they kept its key architecture, a central banking system with regional reserve banks coordinated by a national board. The Democrats, led by Representative Carter Glass of Virginia and Senator Robert Owen of Oklahoma, rewrote the plan to shift control from private bankers to a public board appointed by the federal government. President Woodrow Wilson personally guided the compromise, insisting on what he called a decentralized central bank, that being a bank with public oversight in Washington, but with regional reserve banks reflecting local interests. The final bill created a new institution that consisted of a board of governors in Washington appointed by the President, a new elastic currency called Federal Reserve notes, and a lender of last resort discount window. There were other unique elements of this new institution as well. The 12 regional Federal Reserve banks were to be owned by member commercial banks in that region, not by the federal government. And this is something that most people don't realize. The regional Federal Reserve banks that do most of the actual banking and work with individual banks are not technically government institutions. Also, the system would be funded outside the federal budget to insulate it from political pressures. Once the House and Senate reconciled their versions, Wilson pressed Congress to pass the bill before the holiday recession. After intense debate, the Senate approved the Federal Reserve act on December 19, 1913. The house followed on December 22. Wilson signed it into law on December 23, 1913, just days before Christmas, noting that the country finally had a central banking system that balanced public authority with regional representation. The timing was not accidental. Wilson and the Democratic leadership wanted the bill passed before opponents could regroup in the new year. Some members complained that the vote was being rushed in the final days before Christmas. But the political momentum, plus the lingering memory of the 1907 panic, carried it through. The Federal Reserve Board began operations in December 1914, just months after the outbreak of World War I in Europe. The new institution immediately faced extraordinary challenges. As European powers liquidated American securities to finance their war, gold flowed into the United States in unprecedented quantities. The Fed had to manage this influx while maintaining domestic financial stability and helping to finance American participation in the war after it entered in 1917. During these formative years, the Fed's role and authority was poorly defined. The regional reserve banks exercised considerable autonomy, sometimes pursuing conflicting policies. The Fed also struggled to establish its relationship with the Treasury Department, which had traditionally managed government finances and influenced monetary conditions through its handling of federal deposits and bonds. Bond sales. Benjamin Strong, who served as the governor of the Federal Reserve bank of New York from 1914 until his death in 1928, emerged as the system's most influential figure. During this period, Strong pioneered the use of open market operations, that being the buying and selling of government securities, as a tool for influencing credit conditions. He also worked to establish the dollar as a key international currency and collaborated with European central bankers to stabilize the international monetary system. During the 1920s, however, the 1920s also revealed the Fed's limitations and misjudgments. As stock prices soared in the late 1920s, Fed officials debated how to respond. Some worried about speculative excess and advocated tighter monetary policy, while others argued that stable commodity prices should dictate the appropriate policy. The Fed ultimately pursued a middle course that proved inadequate to either prevent the stock market crash or the subsequent economic catastrophe. The Great Depression represents the darkest chapter in the Federal reserve's history. Between 1929 and 1933, the American economy contracted by roughly a third. Unemployment soared above 25% and nearly half of all banks failed. The Federal Reserve was created to prevent the panics that occurred in the late 19th century. And now under its watch, the country experienced the greatest panic ever. The actual mechanics of what happened during the Great Depression will be the topic of a future episode as it's a pretty involved subject. However, it became obvious to everyone that reforms to the Federal Reserve were necessary. The end result was the Banking act of 1935. One of the core changes was to the governance and internal organization of the Federal Reserve system. Prior to 1935, the Washington based board was simply called the Federal Reserve Board. The act renamed it to the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System and reorganized leadership titles such that the Chief Executive became the Chairman of the Board of Governors and the second in command became the Vice Chair and other members were simply titled Governors. It removed from membership of the Board of Governors the Secretary of Treasury and the Comptroller of the Currency who had previously sat on the Board. With their removal, the Board gained greater independence from the Executive branch. The act also formally established the terms and appointment of Governors. They would be nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate for staggered long term appointments with the intent of insulating them from direct political influence. Another major reform was the reorganization of the Federal Open Market Committee or fomc. The body responsible for coordinating open market operations. That being the buying and selling of government securities and thus influencing credit and money in the economy. The act established the FOMC in its modern form comprising all seven members of the Board of Governors plus five regional Reserve Bank Presidents on a rotating basis as voting members. The act also gave the Board of Governors explicit power to set reserve requirements for member banks. In the 1970s, Congress clarified the goals that monetary policy should be pursuing. Amendments in 1977 articulated the now famous mandate to promote maximum employment and and stable prices. There is a whole lot more to be said about the Federal Reserve. They are unquestionably the most important economic organization on earth. The adjustment of interest rates on the world's reserve currency, the ability to establish bank reserve limits and conducting open market operations have profound implications for everything. Stock markets, real estate, inflation, unemployment and many other factors, for better or worse, are all dependent on decisions made by the Federal Reserve, an institution created in the years preceding the First World War, which was just the latest iteration of a national bank first established in the 18th century. The executive producer of Everything Everywhere Daily is Charles Daniel. The associate producers are Austin Otkin and Cameron Kiefer. My big thanks go to everyone who supports the show over on Patreon. Your support helps make this podcast possible and I also want to remind everyone about the community groups on Facebook and Discord. That's where everything happens that's outside the podcast and links to those are available in the show notes. As always, if you leave a review on any major podcast app or in the above community groups, you too can have it read on the show.