Saturday Matinee: Biography

Summary

History Daily – Saturday Matinee: Biography

Episode Title: Henry VIII
Host: Paul McGann (Noiser)
Historian/Expert: Tracy Borman
Release Date: July 25, 2026

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Episode Overview

In this Saturday Matinee of History Daily, host Paul McGann features an episode from Noiser’s “Biography” series, presenting an in-depth portrait of England’s most infamous king: Henry VIII. Through vivid narration, dramatization, and commentary from Tudor historian Tracy Borman, the episode explores Henry's journey from promising Renaissance prince to notorious tyrant, considering the forces—personal, political, and physical—that shaped and misshaped his reign. The story traces the arc of Henry's life, focusing on his six marriages, religious upheaval, personal tragedies, and enduring legacy.

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Key Discussion Points and Insights

1. “History is Human” – The Rationale for Biography

• Host’s Theme Introduction ([00:38])
  • Paul McGann adopts David McCullough’s phrase: “History is human,” emphasizing that history is fundamentally shaped by people’s decisions and personalities, not just events.
  • Sets the tone for a human-centered exploration of Henry VIII.

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2. The Making of a King: Early Life and Unexpected Ascension

• Henry’s Youth and Privileged Upbringing ([04:10])

  • Born the second son (“the spare”) to Henry VII and Elizabeth of York; indulged in leisure and not groomed to rule.
  • His sudden rise follows the unexpected death of his brother Arthur at age 15, thrusting Henry into the heir’s role.

• Historian’s Insight ([10:45])

  • Tracy Borman:
    “He had an elder brother, Arthur, who had been really chiseled from birth into a future king. But then he died young... Henry had been raised the typical indulged spare heir. Now, I hasten... not to draw any modern day parallels, but, you know, there are two princes, one is the older, sensible one, the other runs a bit wild. And that was definitely the case with Henry.” ([10:45])

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3. Marriage to Catherine of Aragon: Diplomacy, Romance, and Disappointment

• Political and Romantic Dimensions ([11:52–14:22])

  • Marriage to Arthur's widow, Catherine, serves to maintain Spanish alliance and avoid repaying her significant dowry.
  • Initial mutual affection; Henry views himself chivalrously as Catherine’s rescuer.

• Impressions of Young Henry

  • Early Charisma: Athletic, 6'2", intellectual, musical, and culturally vibrant—a “Renaissance prince.”
  • Tracy Borman:
    “We tend to think of Henry as that bloated tyrant… but actually, in his youth... he was, as described by a contemporary, an Adonis.” ([14:41])

• The Succession Problem ([17:44])

  • Catherine suffers multiple miscarriages and stillbirths; only Princess Mary survives.

  • This failure to produce a male heir strains the marriage and drives Henry’s future decisions.

  • Tracy Borman:
    “If Catherine had had a son, there wouldn’t have been the other five wives.” ([18:13])

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4. The Field of the Cloth of Gold: Diplomacy Meets Male Ego

• Henry and Francis I Rivalry ([16:42])
  • Diplomatic summit in 1520 designed more for display than substance.
  • Memorable Moment: Henry drunkenly challenges Francis I to a wrestling match, loses, and is humiliated.
    Tracy Borman: “But Henry got a bit drunk one evening and… actually challenged Francis to an impromptu wrestling match. So Francis accepted and he pretty much immediately threw Henry to the floor… so it was a real kind of wound to Henry’s vanity.” ([16:42])

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5. Anne Boleyn and the Birth of the English Reformation

• The “Great Matter”: Divorce and the Break with Rome ([19:17–24:16])

  • Anne Boleyn enters court (1522); refuses to be Henry’s mistress, piquing his obsession (“thrill of the chase”).

  • Henry seeks annulment from Catherine via the Pope, citing Leviticus, but is thwarted by politics in Rome.

  • The Pope won’t grant the annulment, leading to Henry’s ultimate break with Rome and the creation of the Church of England.

  • Tracy Borman:
    “[Anne] realizes it’s the thrill of the chase for Henry, so she keeps him at arm’s length… for seven long years he tries to get Anne Boleyn for himself… he has to overturn the entire religious establishment.” ([23:38])

• Courtiers’ Fall and Cromwell’s Rise ([26:56])

  • Cardinal Wolsey, unable to resolve the “Great Matter,” is dismissed and later dies en route to trial.
  • Thomas Cromwell engineers the creation of the Church of England and Henry’s transition to “Supreme Head.”

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6. Marriage to Anne Boleyn: Triumph and Tragedy

• Hope for a Son Dashed ([29:00])

  • Anne gives birth to Elizabeth (future Elizabeth I) in September 1533, not the longed-for male heir.

  • Further miscarriages (at least two, possibly three); final miscarriage coincides with Catherine’s death (January 1536).

  • Tracy Borman:
    “My favorite irony in history is that… [Elizabeth I] turned out rather well and was seen as an absolute disaster at the time.” ([30:08])

• Henry’s Disillusion and Anne’s Execution ([31:10–36:38])

  • Henry becomes embittered by personal loss and injury (1536 jousting accident).
  • Anne is accused (falsely) of adultery, incest, and witchcraft and is executed at the Tower of London (May 19, 1536).
  • Memorable Moment: The French executioner is summoned for a swift, symbolic death by sword.
  • Tracy Borman:
    “We’re not looking at a sudden change in Henry’s personality. These less savory traits… had always been there… they just really came out more in his later years.” ([36:38])

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7. Last Three Marriages: Obsession, Decline, and Political Maneuvering

• Jane Seymour: The Idealized Wife ([37:34–42:04])

  • Jane gives birth to Edward (finally, a male heir) but dies soon after.
  • Henry elevates Jane’s memory, but reality suggests little actual affection.
  • Tracy Borman:
    “He expressed regret at marrying her a few weeks after the wedding because he said there were better looking women at court… within a week of her death, he was described as being as merry a widower as you could ever see.” ([42:04])

• Destructive Phase: The Dissolution of the Monasteries ([42:51])

  • Under Cromwell, Henry loots and destroys Catholic monasteries, accumulates wealth and property for the Crown, and enforces the Reformation with violence.

• Anne of Cleves: The Unhappy Fourth Marriage ([44:40–46:14])

  • Politically motivated marriage, based on a flattering Holbein portrait; Henry is dissatisfied and unable to consummate the marriage, blaming Anne.
  • Cromwell falls from favor and is beheaded.

• Catherine Howard: The Fateful Fifth Wife ([46:55–48:33])

  • Much younger bride, Henry attempts to relive his youth.
  • Catherine has a relationship with Thomas Culpepper; her real adultery is discovered and she is executed.
  • Tracy Borman:
    “She was seen as this kind of airhead, really, until recently when now, actually, we realized what a victim she’d been… but she did commit adultery, undoubtedly… her reign ended in the same bloody way that Anne Boleyn’s did.” ([47:23])

• Catherine Parr: Final Queen and Unifier ([54:49–55:18])

  • Intelligent, moderate, and a unifying stepmother, she acts as regent and forges strong bonds with Henry’s children, notably Elizabeth.
  • Tracy Borman:
    “What was important about Catherine is the way she united Henry’s children and successors… this is her major contribution.” ([55:18])

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8. Decline and Death: The King’s Final Days

• Physical and Emotional Degradation ([39:57–40:44])

  • Tormented by leg ulcers, obesity, and emotional volatility.
  • Transition from athletic prince to incapacitated autocrat.
  • Tracy Borman:
    “We don’t consider enough the pain that Henry was in… it’s little wonder that Henry seems to change because he’s a man tormented by pain…” ([39:57])

• Final Illness and Death ([56:04])

  • Too dangerous for his doctors to foretell his death (“it’s treason to predict the death of the King”).
  • Utters a repentant confession: “Pardon me all my sins, he pleads. Though they were greater than can be.” ([56:33])
  • Henry dies at age 55 (January 1547); buries with Jane Seymour.

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9. Legacy: The Remaking of England and the Tudor Succession

• Immediate Succession ([57:05])

  • All three of Henry's offspring become monarchs: Edward VI (short-lived), Mary I (“Bloody Mary”), and Elizabeth I (the most famous Tudor ruler).

• Long-Term Impact ([59:20])

  • Launches the Royal Navy, strengthens Parliament’s role, establishes the Church of England, and ignites the English Reformation.

  • Tracy Borman:
    “It’s thanks to Henry that we have the Church of England and that today the monarch is still head of that church… really, it was the beginning of the sort of modern bureaucracy and… of Parliament as a real political force.” ([59:20])

  • Henry’s reign transforms England from a medieval state into the beginnings of a modern nation.

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Notable Quotes & Memorable Moments

• Paul McGann on History’s Human Focus ([00:38]):
  • “History is human… It’s about us. No humans, no history.”
• Tracy Borman on Henry’s Youth ([14:41]):
  • “He was… an Adonis… Very athletic… the ultimate Renaissance prince.”
• On Anne Boleyn’s Downfall ([30:08]):
  • “My favorite irony in history is that [Elizabeth I] turned out rather well and was seen as an absolute disaster at the time.”
• Anne Boleyn’s Execution ([35:45]):
  • “I pray God save the king… Never was there a gentler nor more merciful prince.”
• On Henry’s Emotional Capacity ([36:38]):
  • “These rather less savory traits… had always been there… they just really came out more, I think, in his later years.”
• On Jane Seymour ([42:04]):
  • “He expressed regret at marrying her a few weeks after the wedding… within a week of her death, he was… as merry a widower as you could ever see.”
• On Henry’s Broader Legacy ([59:20]):
  • “It’s thanks to Henry that we have the Church of England… and it grew and grew in power… I think this could justifiably claim to be the sort of birth of the early modern period.”

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Timestamps for Important Segments

• [00:38] – Introduction to the “history is human” theme
• [04:10–10:45] – Henry’s childhood and Arthur’s death
• [10:45–14:22] – Henry’s ascension and marriage to Catherine
• [16:42] – Field of Cloth of Gold, male rivalry, and humiliation
• [17:44–19:17] – Succession crisis and marital frustration
• [22:23–24:16] – Anne Boleyn’s entrance and Henry’s obsession
• [25:57] – Creation of the Church of England
• [30:08] – Anne Boleyn’s pregnancies and execution
• [36:38] – Henry’s post-accident personality and emotional state
• [39:57] – Physical and psychological decline; daily pain
• [42:51] – Destruction of the monasteries
• [44:40–46:14] – Anne of Cleves saga and Cromwell’s downfall
• [46:55–48:33] – Catherine Howard’s tragic story
• [54:49–55:18] – Catherine Parr’s importance as queen and mother
• [56:04] – Henry’s death; final days and confession
• [59:20] – Summing up Henry’s legacy and England’s transformation

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Overall Tone

The episode is engaging, accessible, and richly narrative—balanced between drama, insight from Tracy Borman, and historical context. The tone is both sympathetic and critical, willing to dissect the complex, often contradictory aspects of Henry VIII as king, husband, and architect of modern Britain.

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For More:
Search for Noiser’s “Biography” podcast to continue exploring the fascinating lives that have shaped history.

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End of Summary

Transcript

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Ever since I first heard him utter it, I have adopted the late David McCullough's quip history is human as my own. It's short, it alliterates, and it says perfectly and succinctly why the study of history is important. It's about us. No humans, no history. Maybe if there were another sapient species on the planet, this aphorism would stop working, but only as pithy rhetoric. Because the point remains. Without living beings making decisions, planning, striving, succeeding and failing, history doesn't matter. It becomes something else, like geology or paleontology. So history is human. And on today's Saturday matinee, we're sharing an episode from a fantastic new Noiser podcast that focuses tightly on the humans with the most impact throughout history, a show called Biography. The episode you're about to hear is a biography of Henry viii, one of the most colorful and consequential rulers England has ever I hope you enjoy. While you're listening, be sure to search for and follow Biography. We put a link in the show notes to make it easy for you.

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It's the 24th of January 1536. Greenwich, a magnificent palace on the banks of the River Thames near London. Today a royal pageant is in full swing. The air is rich with music, smoke from a hog roast and the thrum of the crowd. A joust is underway, a battle for strength and courage held on a long Runway known as a tilt guard. The arena is decorated with flags and bonting in the red rose livery of the ruling house of Tudor. The tilt yard is flanked by octagonal towers that support seating platforms, a VIP area for courtiers. Their chatter turns to cheers as Henry VIII canters onto the field. The King looks resplendent in gleaming armor like a knight off to war. For a monarch who inherited his crown rather than winning it on the battlefield, the joust is an important show of his physical prowess. But Henry's armor hides a secret. The King is not a well man. Contrary to the invincible image he presents, he has suffered bouts of smallpox and malaria. Now at the age of 44, he's weakened by the varicose veins on his legs which have turned into painful ulcers. The open sores may be caused by the tight garters that he wears to emphasize his shapely calf muscles. Nonetheless, Henry looks every inch the warrior as he grasps the reins of his armored stallion. The horse stamps and snorts, its breath misting the winter air. Jousting is not for the faint hearted. On the tilt yard, privilege is pushed to one side. Henry will face his opponent as an equal man to man. The moment the flag falls, the King leans into a full charge, his horse accelerating beneath him as he balances a 3 meter long lance under his arm. But then suddenly, the roar of the crowd stutters to a hush. Something is wrong. Maybe it's the top heavy bulk of his armor or a Stumble of hooves or a weakness in his muscles. But the King topples to one side. His weight drags the horse with him and half a ton of animal crushes Henry into the hard packed ear. After the accident, the King lies unconscious for two hours. His wife, Anne Boleyn, is told that he may die. The shock apparently causes her to miscarry, the son that the pair have been desperately awaiting. But Henry comes round and seems to be restored. The King lives to fight another day. Except today, even five minutes of concussion indicates a brain trauma. Henry's two hours of unconsciousness then suggests a considerable injury. Some say the King changes that day on the tilt yard from party prince to terrible tyrant. Within a few months, he will have his wife beheaded, mainly because she lost that vital son and heir. The next decade, he will burn through four more wives, bankrupt his nation and vandalise England's cultural heritage in his quest for supreme power. So what went wrong for Henry viii? How did England's most eligible bachelor degenerate into a bloated despot and one of the worst husbands in history? Was the King a psychopath who ruthlessly disposed of those closest to him? Or was he a more complex character, A man driven to distraction by physical pain and political pressure? A leader who dragged Britain from the Dark Ages into the modern era? I'm Paul McGann and this is Henry VIII. Henry Tudor is not born to rule. He is the second son of King Henry VII and Queen Elizabeth of York. From his birth in 1491, the young prince is pampered and festooned with honours and titles. But he is nonetheless only a spare heir after his brother Arthur. The younger boy is of little interest to his father, free to enjoy a childhood of privileged leisure, especially keen on hunting and jousting. But everything changes when Henry is 10. On the 1st of April, 1502, a flag hangs limp over the keep of Ludlow Castle, a stone fortress atop a cliff. The royal residence stands on the border of England and Wales in what is now Shropshire. This is home to Arthur Tudor and his new wife, Catherine of Aragon. They were married four months ago, a wedding that sealed the diplomatic union between England and Spain. Arthur is heir to the English throne. Fifteen years ago, his mother was sent to give birth to him in Winchester, believed to be the site of Camelot. King Arthur's caught. But despite these extreme efforts to imbue the baby with all the powers of his mighty namesake, the young Tudor grows into a sickly boy. Now Arthur falls seriously ill. RAIN PATTERS down as a physician hurries over the drawbridge. Ludlow castle is unusually quiet. Servants and soldiers go about their business with heads and voices lowered. The prince is suffering from uncontrollable shivering, dizziness and exhaustion. The mysterious sweating sickness. The medic examines him, but he's seen this illness many times before. There's nothing they can do but wait and pray. The next day, the bells of Ludlow ring a solemn toll. Prince Arthur is dead. As soon as word reaches his father in Greenwich, King Henry VII sends for his second son, the spare heir, young Henry Tudor. Though the monarch could scarcely know it yet, the substitution that hands Henry Tudor the reins of power will change the course of England's history. Tracy Borman is a historian and broadcaster who specializes in the Tudor period. Her latest book about the British monarchy is called Crown and Scepter.

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

There was a time when he was destined for a career in the church. Particularly ill suited for that, I'd have said. But he had an elder brother, Arthur, who had been really chiseled from birth into a future king. But then he died young, he was just 15. He'd recently married Catherine of Aragon and it was a disaster, completely, you know, unexpected. And so Henry viii, the future Henry viii, his younger brother, was thrust into the spotlight. But by then he, it was a bit late to shape him and Henry had been raised the typical indulged spare heir. Now, I hastened, you know, to not to draw any modern day parallels, but, you know, there are two princes, one is the older, sensible one, the other runs a bit wild. And that was definitely the case with Henry. And so too little too late really summarizes his father's approach to trying to mold him suddenly into a future king and stop him jousting and drinking, staying up late. And Henry hated that. He wanted to express himself and I think he really did.

[Narrator/Host]

When he became king, Henry Tudor takes on the duties expected of him, especially when it comes to protecting the diplomatic ties between England and Spain. This includes marrying his dead brother's widow, Catherine of Aragon. By contrast to her first wedding to Arthur, which was a lavish affair. At the old St. Paul's Cathedral, the ceremony between Henry and Catherine is subdued. It is the 11th of June 1509, the feast day of the Catholic Saint Barnabas. And just a month after the burial of the old king, Henry vii, a bell tolls at the church of the Observant Friars next to Greenwich palace. Inside, the 17 year old Henry Tudor stands in full armour, his hand on the hilt of his sword in the manner of a medieval knight. It's taken six years of Negotiations to reach this ceremony. Henry has sought the Pope's permission to marry his brother's wife, and he prays for God's approval, too. The heavy wooden doors swing open to reveal a woman who is little older than him in her prime, the summer sun gilding her auburn hair. Catherine is the child of the Catholic power couple Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabel of Castile. Their daughter was groomed to rule, betrothed since the age of three to the heir to the English throne. When she wed Arthur in 1501, England received from the Spanish a vast dowry of 200,000 crowns. And when Arthur unexpectedly died only a year later, the English did all they could to avoid paying back that fortune. Hence her marriage to Henry. They need to keep Catherine in the family and her dowry in the royal coffers. Catherine joins Henry at the altar. Vows are spoken before the Archbishop of Canterbury, and a new golden couple walk arm in arm into the Greenwich sunlight.

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

Henry saw himself as rescuing her, this beautiful Spanish princess. I think Henry was already a bit in love with her when, as a very young man, he had led her to her wedding with his brother Arthur. So it was all very chivalrous for Henry, and I think Catherine felt the same. She'd never really loved Arthur, but she was bowled over by his gorgeous younger brother.

[Narrator/Host]

Queen Catherine is not the only courtier who is besotted. The ambassador of Venice writes about the physical and mental beauty that God has combined in the eighth. King Henry, another diplomat, says Henry excels above anyone who has ever worn a crown. In the early years of his reign, the party prince becomes the king of hearts.

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

I think he was deeply impressive. We tend to think of Henry as that bloated tyrant and from the later portraits of him, but actually, in his youth, he was, as described by a contemporary, an Adonis. He was very athletic. He was 6 foot 2, kind of towered over most other people at the court. He was very proud of his fine calves in particular, and would show them off in beautiful white tights and the like. And he did actually cut a very impressive figure. He was very, very good looking. He kind of had it all. He was the ultimate Renaissance prince. Very cultured, very well educated. He had a sharp intellect, good at music, good at sport.

[Narrator/Host]

But it becomes obvious when Henry takes the throne in 1509 that the new king has more talent for pleasure than politics. He enjoys his newfound power, but not the duties that accompany it. Luckily for Henry, there's always an ambitious aide keen to climb the greasy pole of courtly life. Thomas Wolsey is one such man. Wolsey's talent lies in recognizing the king's true desires and fulfilling them. If Henry wants to run after stags and women, Wolsey will govern for him. Soon, despite his lowly origins as the son of a butcher, Wolsey becomes Cardinal Wolsey. As rich and powerful as any noble, his power expands until he is known as the Altar Rex. The other king, always keen to flatter his master, Woolsey, organizes a fabulous event in in Calais in 1520, where Henry can show off the opulence of his court to the French. The meeting between Henry VIII and King Francis is part diplomatic summit, part summer festival. It becomes known as the Field of the Cloth of Gold after the sumptuous temporary palace that is built especially for the occasion.

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

1520. That's when Henry VIII met his greatest rival, Francis I, King of France. They were close in age. They were both good looking, they both had these very culturally vibrant courts. They both fancied themselves as rather good with the ladies. You know, everything was a parallel and therefore a rivalry between them. So this masqueraded as a sort of expression of peace between England and France. But nobody was fooled. This was one king trying to get one over on the other to be more magnificent, more spectacular. But it all came to a rather sticky end because they both fancied themselves as great sportsmen. But Henry got a bit drunk one evening and he actually challenged Francis to an impromptu wrestling match. So Francis accepted and he pretty much immediately threw Henry to the floor. He won and things turned very sour. So it was a real kind of wound to Henry's vanity. I think

[Narrator/Host]

as time passes, Henry suffers more dense to his ego than to his armor. Not least is the fact that after a decade on the throne, Henry still has no heir. Now aged over 40, Catherine of Aragon has given birth six times and lost five babies, including a son who died after a few weeks. Only the Princess Mary has survived. Grief has driven the once happy couple apart.

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

Catherine was the ideal wife for Henry. I think it's easy to forget that because there were five others that followed. So you see it as a bit of a failure, but far from. It was the most successful really of Henry's marriages. The only thing that goes wrong for Catherine is her failure, as Henry sees it, to give him a son. So she has quite a tragic history in this respect. They do have a son very early in their marriage, but tragically he died after just a few weeks. And then it's just a catalogue of miscarriages, stillbirths. And at the end of it, Catherine's only living child is a daughter, Mary, and though Henry dotes on her, that's not good enough. This isn't an age where women are seen as equal to men in terms of the royal succession. You only have a queen if there's absolutely no other person who could possibly take the throne. Henry needs a son. If Catherine had had a son, there wouldn't have been the other five wives.

[Narrator/Host]

Late one night in 1527, Henry lies alone in his bed. He's long since stopped visiting his wife, Catherine for comfort. Now, in the dying days of their marriage, Henry picks up his Bible. But instead of solace, he finds torment. A verse in Leviticus chills him. If a man shall take his brother's wife, it is an unclean thing lay shall be childless. His fate is written there in black and white. God is punishing him for marrying his wife, brother's wife, Catherine. He snaps the book shut. As Henry slides the Bible under his pillow, his mind settles on one thought that consoles him. Anne Boleyn. She is young. She's clever. She refuses to share his bed, which is a tantalizing torture. And so Henry falls asleep with one hand on the empty pillow, sure that this woman is his destiny. He will move heaven and earth to have Anbu Lin

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It was 1522 when she first joined the English court, serving as maid of honor to Catherine of Aragon. But Anne Boleyn is a cut above the other ladies trained in the French court. She is stylish and exotic, but also shrewd. Like the political advisers who exploit Henry's foibles, Anne knows what the king wants. But instead of giving it to him, she settles down to play a long game. Over the years, Anne has become Henry's obsession. When he writes her name, he draws love hearts around it. He has been candid in his letters, telling Anne, if you give your heart, body and soul to me, I will make you my only mistress. Her reply in a letter of 1525 was, Mistress, I will not be. There are many women, including Anne's own sister, who have accepted the low hanging fruit of temporary popularity that comes from sharing the king's bed. But Anne wishes to climb higher. She tells Henry that she is saving her virginity for her future husband. Her purity and resolve only make Anne more alluring.

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

Henry is a man who likes to hunt and she realizes it's the thrill of the chase for Henry, so she keeps him at arm's length. She refuses to to be his mistress, and it proves an absolute masterstroke. Henry wants what he can't have, and for seven long years he tries to get Anne Boleyn for himself to marry her. But to do that, he has to overturn the entire religious establishment because the Pope isn't going to give him his divorce or annulment from Catherine of Aragon. Certainly not without a fight. So, yeah, you definitely get the sense Henry is this great hunter and Anne Boleyn is his prey.

[Narrator/Host]

Henry is used to getting what he wants and now nothing can stand in his way. Not Anne's resistance, not his vows to his first wife, Catherine, not even his Roman Catholic faith that forbids divorce. Henry's quest for separation from Catherine becomes known as the Great Matter. His advisor, Cardinal Woolsey, takes up the legal challenge of freeing his master from his marital bonds. The verse in Leviticus that tormented Henry becomes the backbone of their case. Wolsey petitions the Pope, stating that the king's marriage must not be binding because Catherine had been married to his brother. But hundreds of miles away in Rome, other matters are afoot. In 1527, troops of the Holy Roman Empire besieged the Vatican and imprisoned the Pope. They are under the command of King Charles V of Spain, who happens to be Catherine of Aragon's beloved nephew. By asking the Pope to annul Catherine's marriage, Cardinal Wolsey is effectively asking him to rule against the very people on whom his life depends. Not surprisingly, the Pope stalls for time. Back in England, Catherine puts up her own legal fight to retain her title. She argues that her first marriage was never consummated. The teenage Arthur was already ailing when they wed and died four months later. After years of delay, the Pope sides with the Spanish. He insists that divorce will mean Henry's excommunication from the Catholic Church.

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

Henry was a good Catholic. He'd been given the title fide defensor, or defender of the faith, by an earlier pope. And I don't think he ever really embraced the new reformist ideas that were sweeping across Europe. And that Anne absolutely did embrace. She was a genuine reformer. Henry was always rather uncomfortable about that. But increasingly he came to realize this was his trump card. This was how he was going to get his divorce or annulment and also become a very, very rich king along the way. Because when it gathered ground, it wasn't just a reformation of England's religious life and creating a new Church of England separating us from Rome. It was the destruction of the monasteries and the diversion of their wealth, which was immense, to the royal coffers. And so Henry was tempted by money, really, as well as by what it would give him, I.e. anne Boleyn.

[Narrator/Host]

In 1529, Henry blames Cardinal Wolsey for the inability to resolve the great matter and fires him. A year later, Wolsey is accused of treason. He dies on his way to trial in London, where it's likely he would have been executed. It's a dangerous job, serving Henry, but another man steps into the hot seat. A minister, Thomas Cromwell, Believing that the Pope will never sanction Henry's divorce, hatches an audacious plan. If the Catholic Church won't give his blessing for an annulment, then Henry should simply start a new church, a Church of England based on Protestant ideas that are sweeping through Europe and with Henry himself as its supreme head. It takes time for Cromwell to persuade the conservative king. But on 11 February 1531, an act of Parliament confirms Henry as Supreme Head of the Church of England. Now Henry doesn't need the Pope. He can effectively arrange his own divorce. The annulment will still take years to become legal, but Catherine has already been sent away to live in Richmond palace, some 10 miles upriver from central London. Anne Boleyn is now confident enough to become Henry's mistress. Soon enough, the King finds he has a more pressing problem. Anne is pregnant. The couple will have two weddings. The first is held secretly in 1533 to ensure the child is legitimate. The divorce isn't yet confirmed, but it's legal enough for Henry. In his excitement for a new start with a new wife, Henry commissions a new palace in the grounds of the Tower of London. The King and Queen's apartments are decorated with their entwined initials, A and H. Henry restores the tower too, giving the white stone turrets onion shaped domes in a French style that pleases Anne. They remain in place. Today, the annulment of his marriage to Catherine is announced on 23 May 1533. One week later, Henry flaunts his young and fertile new wife with a lavish coronation that includes a flotilla of 50 barges on the Thames and a model of a fire breathing dragon. When Anne finally goes into labor, Henry thinks that God is smiling on him. At last. The years of frustration, the break with Rome, the betrayal of Catherine, it will all be worth it when a son and heir arrives. On 7th September 1533, Queen Anne gives birth to a healthy baby. But it's a girl. The arrival of little Elizabeth, named after both her grandmothers, teaches Henry the meaning of disappointment. And Anne Boleyn learns just how swift and brutal the fall from Henry's favor can be.

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

She was already pregnant when Henry married her. So when she was finally sure she really was gonna be queen, she'd consented to sleep with him. And she fell pregnant very quickly. And of course, everybody expected it to be a boy, not least Henry. And then it turned out to be a girl, the future Elizabeth I. My favorite irony in history is that actually she turned out rather well and was seen as an absolute disaster at the time and n neglected by her father. Then there was the, you know, same familiar, very sad catalogue of miscarriages, really. Anne had at least two, possibly three miscarriages, and the last of those took place in January 1536, on the same day that Catherine of Aragon was buried. And that really, I think, was the last straw for Henry. He Said something like, I can see God is not going to give me any male children. So suddenly, Henry's very good at doing this. He employs God when it suits him. So God was displeased with his marriage to Catherine. Now God doesn't think much to Anne Boleyn either. So she has to go.

[Narrator/Host]

Though Henry barely mourns Catherine's death at 50, January 1536 is a dark month for the monarchy. The jousting accident ends his sporting career. And then Anne Boleyn suffers another miscarriage. Midwives say it was a boy. Despite her many virtues, in Henry's eyes, she is beyond forgiveness. He overturned the entire Church and State for her, asking only for a son in return. She had one job and she failed. It's Henry's new advisor, Thomas Cromwell, who devises Anne's downfall. She is accused of adultery and incest, of trying to get pregnant by her brother so the child wouldn't resemble another man. But the lewd charges, including accusations of witchcraft, are trumped up. It's more likely that Anne's only misdemeanors are those of failing to produce the necessary son and objecting to the King's renewed passion for hunting the ladies of the court. Though during the trial, evidence surfaces that Henry may be impotent, ultimately, of course, the decision goes his way. And so, three years after building a palace for his new bride at the Tower of London, it's there that he sends her to be executed. It's the 19th of May, 1536. A cold morning mist hangs over the River Thames. Ravens lying, the white flint walls of the Tower of London chuckling together. The constable of the Tower has followed the King's instructions to the letter. Today's event is to be somber. Henry has been humiliated enough without his wife's execution bringing him more discomfort. The constable comes to inspect the new scaffold that has been built near the North Tower, scenting the air sharply of cut wood. Seeing that a small crowd has managed to sneak inside, the constable orders the gates closed so that no more can enter. He doesn't wish his own head to be the next to fall. At 8 o', clock, the door of the Queen's apartment opens. The crowd murmurs as a petite woman emerges, flanked by a small entourage. A whale cuts the through the air, but it's only one of the ladies in waiting who folds onto the ground like a dropped handkerchief. Anne Boleyn steps over the dewy grass. For many onlookers, it's their first glimpse of the woman renowned as a French whore. A schemer, a witch. In the steely light of an English morning, Anne looks unexceptional. Aged in her mid-30s now, she is prettier than most and clad in silk clothes. But unsurprisingly, she is pale and weak. She mounts the scaffold. A man in a hood awaits her, holding a long sword that is shiny as glass. Anne speaks, her voice steady and low. I pray God save the king, she says. The crowd scoffers. They've heard how she plotted the king's death. Anne raises her chin and addresses the ravens on the wall. Never was there a gentler nor more merciful prince, she says. If she's hoping for mercy from Henry, none comes. He is two miles away at Whitehall Palace. While the treason charge against Anne is the work of Thomas Cromwell, the organization of her death is micromanaged by Henry. He even pays for an executioner to travel from France, one who is skilled enough to behead Anne with one swipe of his sword. Perhaps Henry is being merciful when he makes his wife's death quick. Or maybe it appeals to his vanity. Death by sword harks back to Arthurian legend, a method that reflects Henry's love of chivalry. Anne Boleyn will die in the same noble manner as King Arthur's wife, Guinevere. On the scaffold before the waiting crowd, Anne kneels upright and a blindfold is wrapped over her eyes. She folds her hands in prayer when the French executioner moves. It's so fast. There is a moment before the audience reacts. Amid the change, one of the ladies in waiting wraps the head in a white cloth while the others carry the body from the stage. The constable gives a signal and the cannon that line the walls boom out over London. Anne Boleyn is dead. By the time the ravens settle, the crowd has moved on and so has Henry viii. He hears the gunshots from Whitehall and immediately boards his barge. He has an engagement with Jane Seymour, the woman he has chosen to be his third wife. They will announce their engagement the following day. His callous timing leads some to say that Henry is a cold hearted killer, unable to feel emotion. Perhaps even someone whose faculties were impaired by the jousting accident only four months earlier.

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

Recently there's been a lot of talk about he sustained some kind of head injury. That it led to this sudden personality change. I kind of don't buy into that. For a couple of reasons, we're not looking at a sudden change in Henry's personality. These traits, these rather less savory traits in his character, had Always been there. And I think they had their roots in his indulged childhood. The fact he was rather spoiled. He was allowed to have free reign really, as the spare heir and he was used to having his own way and they just really came out more, I think, in his later years. Now, we don't know what he thought about Anne Boleyn's execution. He didn't leave behind any trace. But I think Henry was a great one in at least appearing to believe in his own publicity. So when somebody was out, they were out and he was moving on to the next thing. But I think the truth is he probably felt it a lot more than he showed it.

[Narrator/Host]

Nonetheless, 10 days after Anne's death, Henry is married again. He keeps it in the family. Jane Seymour is the second cousin of Anne Boleyn, whose body is buried in an unmarked shallow grave beneath paving stones. Soon, things are looking up for Henry. Jane Seymour proves to be an obedient, attentive wife. More importantly, she quickly falls pregnant. As usual, Henry is obsessed. When Jane craves fresh quail that are out of season in England, Henry orders a delivery from France. He consults astrologers who say the child is a boy. But who would tell the increasingly belligerent Henry any different? In the autumn of 1537, Jane goes into labour. It takes three days and three nights, but on 12 October, she delivers a healthy boy. Henry finally has a son. At midnight, the child is christened and named Edward. He is proclaimed heir to the English throne. Now in his mid-40s, Henry is relieved of the burden of maintaining the Tudor line of progression. He celebrates with days of pageants, feasts and even jousts. But by now he's unable to show off his skills in the tilt yard. It's been over 18 months since the King was able to ride his jousting injury and the ulcers on his legs have left him unable to exercise. His appetite remains hearty, and soon the King is, as one chronicler writes, overgrown with corpulence and fatness. Sometimes he's carried about the palace in decorated chairs. There's even a kind of Tudor stairlift installed in his previous chambers. But still, he dresses the part. Armor is bespoke. It fits as well as a Savile Row suit. And so it reveals the truth. Henry's armor for the Field of Cloth of gold in 1520 testifies to a neat 36 inch waist. Twenty years later, his suit of armor for a mayday parade measures no less than 51 inches around the middle and 54 the chest. The king is tormented both physically and mentally.

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

I think we don't consider enough the pain that Henry was in, the physical pain and discomfort. Now that is enough to make anybody quite irascible and short tempered. And thanks to the medicine of the time and the treatment of his physicians, rather than putting a fairly swift end to the infection in his legs, it actually prolonged it. It made it a lifelong condition for Henry and he gained a lot of weight which put pressure on his wounded legs. So it was this vicious circle and I think we can't separate out the physical from the emotional and the intellectual really. So there's little wonder that Henry seems to change because he's a man tormented by pain and so he remains to for the rest of his days.

[Narrator/Host]

The consolation of a happy marriage blessed by a son is short lived. Eleven days after the birth of Prince Edward, Henry is called to his wife's chamber. When the King enters the room, it's dark and heavy with incense. Midwives and ladies in waiting shrink back into the shadows. Henry looms over the bed, conscious of his huge proportions in this feminine environment. He stifles a grunt as he leans down to take his wife's hand. It lies pale across his swollen fingers, limp as a fish. He demands an explanation from the physician. Jane, he is nervously told, has succumbed to a fever, probably as a result of exhaustion from the prolonged labour. Henry holds Jane's hand as a priest reads the last rites. She dies in the early hours of the next morning, when Henry has gone to his own bed. Years later, while married to his sixth wife, he will commission a painting of himself with Jane Seymour. When Henry dies, he is entombed with her at Windsor. They are only married for 18 months, but Henry seems to value her memory more than he values any living woman.

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

It suited Henry to present Jane as the ideal wife because she gave him a son, so she would always be of sacred memory, really. And she had to be the wife he loved the most because she's the only one of the six who succeeded and gave him that vital male heir, the future Edward vi. But I think the reality is he didn't particularly love her any more than the others, or even at all. He expressed regret at marrying her a few weeks after the wedding because he said there were better looking women at court. And then within a week of her death, he was described as being as merry a widower as you could ever see. So it wasn't, I think, quite a case of the heartbreak that Henry liked to present it. As for future generations

[Narrator/Host]

in middle age, Henry grows increasingly destructive. Under the influence of Thomas Cromwell, he exploits that break from Rome to seize church owned land, property and valuables. Monasteries, abbeys and convents are looted, closed or destroyed. Precious Catholic manuscripts and entire monastic archives are confiscated. Oxford University is left without a library after its collection is burned. But the Reformation goes even deeper. It aims to overhaul the hearts and minds of the English faithful. There are over 9,000 parish churches in England and some maintain their allegiance to the old religion. Particularly troublesome for Henry VIII is a cult that persists around St Thomas of Becket, who died in 1170. Then Archbishop of Canterbury, Becket was murdered inside the cathedral on the the orders of the King's ancestor, Henry ii, Becket was canonized and given a tomb inside Canterbury Cathedral. Almost 400 years later, when Tudor pilgrims continue to visit his golden shrine, Henry has the lavish memorial torn down and disposes of Becket's bones. This spiteful deed sends shockwaves through England. It sends a clear message to Catholics. This King will show no mercy to true believers or their sacred sites. But Henry's mind is once again occupied with matters of the heart. Now a widower and mindful of his own rise from spare heir to king, Henry needs another son. Thomas Cromwell steps in as matchmaker. He has his eye on Anne of Cleves. The German noblewoman has connections to powerful Protestant houses on the continent. The match would offer Henry some protection from the Holy Roman Empire should it decide to invade England and take revenge for their exit from the Catholic union. Trying to win Henry round to the plan, Cromwell sends the artist Hans Holbein to paint a portrait of Anne. Henry approves, but when the woman herself arrives In England in 1540, he takes one look and declares, I like her. Not. The King, though, does his duty and marries Anne, but orders Cromwell to fix an annulment at once. She puts up little resistance, apparently relieved to be excused from consummating her marriage to the now monstrous Henry.

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

He was so embarrassed, and he was particularly embarrassed by the fact that he couldn't consummate it. So now he put this down to the fact he found Anne so deeply unattractive in all ways, but actually he was probably impotent by the time he married her. There had been rumors of impotence even as early as his marriage to Anne Boleyn, and I think that was the case now. He was not a well man and that was really humiliating for him to have to admit, but he needed to admit it, because if the marriage had been consummated, he couldn't have got out of it, he kind of admitted that he'd been unable to, but that's why all the blame was put on Anne. He couldn't do it. But that's just because she's so repulsive.

[Narrator/Host]

The blame for the failed fourth marriage lies at Thomas Cromwell's door. Born the son of a blacksmith, Cromwell rose through the ranks due to his intelligence and merciless political vision. But though his reforms suited the king, his ruthlessness has made him few friends at court. Soon, rumors circulate that Cromwell is plotting treason and planning to marry Henry's daughter, Mary. And so, in 1540, the paranoid king has Thomas Cromwell beheaded at the Tower of London. On the very same day, Henry weds his fifth wife, Catherine Howard.

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

For Henry, this was his midlife crisis, I think. So Catherine was much younger than him, probably about 30 years younger, really. We don't know exactly how old she was, but probably a teenager when she met and married Henry. And he sort of fell head over heels in love. But I think he was just trying to recapture something, recapture his lost youth.

[Narrator/Host]

Soon enough, this relationship, too collapses. Catherine develops a dangerous relationship with a courtier, Thomas Culpepper.

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

She was seen as this kind of airhead, really, until recently when now, actually, we realized what a victim she'd been, how she'd been preyed upon throughout her life. Probably child abuse, really, we would call it now, by her music teacher when she was just 13. And then there's a whole catalog of men kind of taking advantage of her, including, actually the King of England. But what she didn't have was political nous, sort of shrewdness. And she was very foolhardy. She took colossal risks with her relationship with Thomas Culpepper, who was one of the King's own servants. And an attraction developed between them, although, again, that's been reassessed because Culpepper had actually been convicted for rape. And when you read the letter that Catherine wrote to him and that helped to condemn her, you realize she's actually quite frightened of him and he's got some kind of hold over her. But she did commit adultery, undoubtedly. Whereas Anne Boleyn's was fabricated, Catherine's was not. And so her reign ended in the same bloody way that Anne Boleyn's did.

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[Narrator/Host]

One February day in 1542, Catherine Howard is dressed in black velvet and taken on a barge to the Tower of London. She passes under London Bridge, past the severed heads of her lovers, Thomas Culpepper and Francis Dereham, and through Traitor's Gate she is locked in a chamber to await her fate. It's said that the young queen asks for the executioner's block to be brought to her quarters so that she can practice getting into position. When she comes to the scaffold, she's too weak to speak, but the blade comes down nonetheless. And Catherine Howard is the second of Henry's wives to die by beheading. The king's midlife crisis sends him off to war, desperate to prove himself by defeating the French. By July 1545, Henry is having dinner on board a battleship just off the south coast of England at war with the French. His fleet is moored in the Solent, a protected body of water between the Isle of Wight and the naval town of Portsmouth. When word comes that enemy ships have been sighted in the channel, Henry is hurried off the ship to the safety of South Sea Castle, an artillery fort from where he watches the sea battle. A lack of wind means the English navy cannot set sail to engage with the French, whose fleet enters the Solent. But Henry's favorite ship, the Mary Rose, takes up the challenge. She is his finest vessel, a state of the art battleship recently refitted with increased firepower. Out on the Solent, the Mary Rose turns one flank to fire its cannon. It seems the English navy has the upper hand. But as the Mary Rose comes round, it suddenly lists to one side. The King shouts out in horror. It's unclear what is happening to his beloved Mary Rose. Perhaps her gun ports were left open and water has rushed in to flood the lower decks. Perhaps it's the squally wind, or perhaps the Mary Rose is overloaded with with the weight of the additional cannon. It's unthinkable that Henry's flagship has simply been sunk by the French. While his advisors speculate uselessly on land, the King watches his flagship slide under the waves, the pride and joy of his navy, a ship that outlived many of his wives, whose service lasted most of his reign. By evening, the Mary Rose in is gone. She was built in Portsmouth in 1510, so it is all the more poignant that she goes down off its coast. She will lie on the seabed of the Solent until she is recovered and restored. In 1982,

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

Henry was devastated by the sinking of the Mary Rose. At this encounter that took place off the south coast between his navy and that of France. And the Mary Rose was his great flagship. He was inordinately proud of it. And unfortunately, due to a number of factors, and the least of which was its attack by the French, it was the number of cannon on board, the weighting of it, it sank before his very eyes. And I think this really epitomized the fading of Henry's hopes and just really of that bitter disappointment that had started to set in quite early in his reign with his failure to have a son. And then now, what should have been glorious ended in tragedy with the loss of hundreds of men and Henry's great flagship. And I think for him, it was something he never recovered from. It meant such a lot that nothing was more important to Henry than his image as a great warrior king. And there, before his eyes, he'd lost the best of his ships.

[Narrator/Host]

Of some consolation to Henry is his sixth marriage. He returns from the financially disastrous war to his final wife, Catherine Parr. She is unusually tall, red haired and fashionable, ordering 47 pairs of shoes in one particularly modish year. But she is also educated and thoughtful, a woman who puts aside her love for another man to serve her country by marrying its troubled king.

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

What was important, I think, about Catherine is the way she united Henry's children and successors. She had a great relationship with all of her stepchildren, particularly with Elizabeth, and I think this is her major contribution. When Henry went off on that last gasp attempt of military glory in 1544, he left Catherine behind as regent, so she was acting as queen in her own right. And Elizabeth saw that because Catherine invited her to Hampton Court. And I think that was something Elizabeth never forgot. Here is a woman wielding authority and that had a lasting legacy and really did help to shape the future for Elizabeth I.

[Narrator/Host]

On 27 January 1547, Henry is bedridden at Whitehall Palace. His doctors whisper furtively outside his chamber. It's clear that the King does not have long left. But no one has the courage to inform him. It's treason to predict the death of the King. Henry's closest aides have lost their heads for less. But someone sends for a priest and Henry receives his last rites. Weak as he is, the King whispers a confession. Pardon me all my sins, he pleads. Though they were greater than can be. His sins are indeed great in number. History will lose count of the people executed on Henry's orders. Wives, relatives, friends, loyal advisors, innumerable Catholics. Only nine days earlier, he sent the Earl of Surrey to the block. Henry VIII dies in the early hours of the following morning. He is 55, obese and plagued by injuries and ulcers. It's probably a pulmonary embolism that kills him. Blood clots on the lungs. The King is laid to rest at Windsor Castle near his third wife, Jane Seymour. Despite his lifelong fears about a lack of heirs, all three of Henry's children will go on to succeed him. His son Edward takes the throne, but dies while still a boy, probably of tuberculosis. This means that Mary, Henry's daughter, was Catherine of Aragon becomes England's first queen in her own right. She earns the title Bloody Mary for her ruthless attempts to return England to the old religion. But when Mary dies after just five years, her younger sister, the daughter of Anne Boleyn, is crowned Queen Elizabeth Reigns for 45 years longer than the father who despaired of her. Elizabeth I presides over a golden age of English culture. But the Virgin Queen never marries and produces no heir. When she dies in 1603, the Tudor dynasty dies with her. England's most famous king is still best known for his six wives. The history of domestic abuse is reduced to a children's rhyme. And the lasting image of Henry VIII is set by his late portraits that show a gluttonous tyrant who ripped a country apart for his own selfish desires. But whatever the nature of the man, the cultural legacy of the king lives on today. Henry VIII launched the Royal Navy. He put Parliament at the heart of the British constitution. He established the Royal College of Physicians, by which doctors are still licensed. He founded the Church of England, the Anglican faith that is followed by 85 million people worldwide. As a man obsessed with legacy, he triggered a new era of modern Britain.

[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

It's thanks to Henry that we have the Church of England and that today the monarch is still head of that church. Really, it was the beginning of the sort of modern bureaucracy and it was also the beginning, most significantly, of Parliament as a real political force. There was no looking back for it after then. And it grew and grew in power to the extent that it actually defeated and vanquished and destroyed the monarchy altogether a century later, before it was restored. So Henry's reign was of humor, huge significance. I think this could justifiably claim to be the sort of birth of the early modern period. I think Henry VII's reign in many respects still felt quite medieval and the instrument of government and the church was still very much as it had been for centuries. All of that changed during the reign of his son, Henry viii. There was a sea change and I think really we can say this is the beginning of modern times.

[Narrator/Host]

Next time, we'll bring you the first episode of our two part special, Queen Elizabeth ii.

[Queen Elizabeth II Segment Host]

Today we can say she's the last surviving head of state who served in World War II. She is the symbolic figurehead who ties us back to the Blitz, to Churchill, to unprecedented female service, to unprecedented national service. She is that symbol and that is extraordinarily powerful PR going down the decades, becoming more and more important, in fact, because as they become rarer, that generation, their value, their weight, as national treasures

[Narrator/Host]

increases, that's next time.

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[Historian/Expert (Tracy Borman)]

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