Elizabeth’s enemies: plots, rivals and the Spanish Armada

Summary

HistoryExtra Podcast Summary:

Episode Title: Elizabeth’s Enemies: Plots, Rivals and the Spanish Armada
Date: March 22, 2026
Host: Rachel Dinning
Guest: Dr. Nicola Tallis (16th-century historian, author, expert on Elizabeth I)

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Episode Overview

In this third episode of a four-part series on Elizabeth I, host Rachel Dinning speaks with historian Dr. Nicola Tallis to explore the threats Elizabeth faced during her reign—from personal rivals like Mary, Queen of Scots, to the external menace of Spain’s Armada. The discussion delves deeply into Elizabeth’s decision-making, the intricacies of political plots, the dynamics of Elizabeth and Mary’s relationship, and how these moments defined Elizabeth’s queenship.

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Key Discussion Points and Insights

1. Mary, Queen of Scots: The Internal Rival (02:56–18:13)

Why Was Mary a Threat?

• Mary's Claim to the Throne:
  Mary, Queen of Scots was “a Catholic cousin who had a strong claim to the English throne” due to her descent from Henry VII. This gave “Catholic opposition a figurehead” (03:14).
• Popular Perception:
  Many saw Elizabeth as illegitimate and Mary as a legitimate heir.

The Queenly Relationship in Letters (05:01)

• Tone Shifts Over Time:
  Early letters between Elizabeth and Mary were “affectionate” and referred to each other as “sisters.”
  Later, following political crises (like the murder of Mary’s husband, Darnley, and her marriage to Bothwell), Elizabeth’s tone is “frank” and directly critical (05:56).

  “How could a worse choice be made for your honour than Bothwell?”
  —Dr. Nicola Tallis quoting Elizabeth to Mary (06:39)

• Glimpses of Personality:
  Mary’s letters are described as “very open, very passionate,” whereas Elizabeth’s are “guarded” (05:12).

Dilemma Over Mary’s Fate (08:32)

• Elizabeth’s Options:
  • Restore Mary to the Scottish throne (risky due to Mary’s unpopularity and possible entanglement in foreign plots)
  • Send Mary to foreign exile ("dangerous" since she could rally supporters abroad)
  • Imprison Mary (Elizabeth’s eventual choice, allowing surveillance and control)
• Duration and Nature of Imprisonment:
  Mary was imprisoned for 19 years—not in a dungeon, but in a restricted, albeit privileged, state with “luxuries, ladies, pets” (11:00-12:21).

The Babington Plot and Mary’s Execution (12:23–18:13)

• Francis Walsingham & the Elizabethan Spy Network:
  Walsingham, committed adviser to Elizabeth, established a spy network that uncovered numerous Catholic plots—including the Babington plot (12:54).

• Babington Plot Details:

  • Coded letters smuggled to Mary (in beer barrels) were intercepted and decoded by Thomas Phelippes (13:56).
  • The plot suggested direct involvement by Mary in efforts to overthrow Elizabeth.

• Elizabeth’s Reluctance and Remorse:

  • Elizabeth was deeply conflicted about executing an “anointed sovereign.”

    “If she was to put her name to Mary's death warrant, she was basically saying that it was okay to allow the execution of an anointed queen.” —Dr. Tallis (16:17)

  • After Mary’s execution (February 8, 1587), Elizabeth expressed remorse, even claiming she “didn’t mean for that to happen” and punishing her secretary for facilitating the act (16:54).

What Mary’s Story Reveals About Elizabeth (19:46–21:43)

• Elizabeth’s actions underline her sense of duty and prioritization of the state's security over personal feeling.

  “She was prepared ultimately to do what she needed to do in order to safeguard her own safety as queen, but also the safety of her realm.” —Dr. Tallis (20:07)

• Mary’s fate is seen as the result of her own choices, with Elizabeth acting only after being forced by circumstance.

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2. The Spanish Armada: The External Threat (21:48–29:27)

Why Did Spain Want to Invade England? (21:48–24:06)

• Philip II's Motives:
  • Strategic Power: Strengthen Spanish dominance in Europe.
  • Control of Trade Routes: End English raids on Spanish treasure fleets.
  • Religious Restoration: Re-establish Catholicism in England with papal blessing.

    “Religion is definitely one of the chief ones among them.” —Dr. Tallis (24:02)

The Scale of the Threat (24:06–25:04)

• Size of the Armada:
  The fleet consisted of “about 130 ships” and “about 30,000 men”—“one of the largest fleets to ever invade England” (24:13).
• Public Anxiety:
  The sight was “terrifying… but it was also something that really served to unify Elizabeth's people” (25:04).

Elizabeth’s Strategy and the Tilbury Speech (25:04–27:37)

• Propaganda and Rallying:
  Elizabeth skillfully used public appearances and rhetoric to inspire loyalty and courage, especially when she addressed troops at Tilbury.

  “I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman…” —Elizabeth’s iconic Tilbury speech (25:58)

  • Emphasized unity and shared risk: “She promises to live or die amongst you all.”
  • This moment built her “Gloriana” image.
• Enduring Impact:

  “The fact that we're still talking about it now, more than 400 years later, shows how effective it was. Really. This is so powerful… they are iconic.” —Dr. Tallis (27:20)

Tactical and Environmental Factors in English Victory (27:37–29:27)

• Commanders’ Skill:
  Credits Francis Drake and Lord Howard of Effingham for adapting to conditions, using faster ships and superior firepower.
• Spanish Weaknesses:
  Spanish ships were heavier, commanders less experienced.
• Environmental Factors:
  Fierce storms wrecked parts of the Armada, seen as “God’s intervention,” fueling English propaganda.

  “Perhaps the strength of the English commanders has been a little bit underrated.” —Dr. Tallis (29:18)

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3. Takeaway Lessons About Elizabeth’s Queenship (29:27–30:35)

• Prioritizing Country Over Personal Ties:
  Elizabeth “always put her country first.”
• Shrewd Instincts:
  She listened to advice but “trusted her own instincts first and foremost.”

  “Ultimately, nine times out of ten, she did what her gut told her to do, and again, on most occasions, it was a good call.” —Dr. Tallis (29:54)

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Notable Quotes & Memorable Moments (with Timestamps)

• On Elizabeth's letter to Mary about Bothwell:

  “How could a worse choice be made for your honour than Bothwell?”
  —Dr. Tallis quoting Elizabeth (06:39)

• On the agony of executing Mary:

  “If she was to put her name to Mary's death warrant, she was basically saying that it was okay to allow the execution of an anointed queen.”
  —Dr. Tallis (16:17)

• On rallying at Tilbury:

  “I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king."
  —Elizabeth’s Tilbury speech, referenced by Dr. Tallis (25:58)

• On Elizabeth's leadership style:

  “She always put her country first... She trusted her own instincts first and foremost.”
  —Dr. Tallis (29:48–30:35)

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Timestamps for Key Segments

• [02:56] Mary, Queen of Scots as a problem for Elizabeth
• [05:01] The exchange and tone of letters between Mary and Elizabeth
• [11:00] The nature and length of Mary’s imprisonment
• [13:56] The Babington Plot—setup and Walsingham’s role
• [16:17] Elizabeth’s crisis over signing Mary’s death warrant
• [21:48] The reasons behind Philip II’s invasion plans
• [24:06] The scale and terror of the Spanish Armada
• [25:04] Elizabeth’s propaganda and the Tilbury speech
• [27:37] Why the Armada failed—English tactics and storms
• [29:27] What these episodes show about Elizabeth as a ruler

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Final Thoughts

Summary:
This episode vividly illustrated how Elizabeth I navigated existential internal and external threats—balancing statecraft, personal relationships, propaganda, and military strategy. Through the lens of her rivalry with Mary, Queen of Scots, and the national crisis of the Spanish Armada, Elizabeth emerges as a pragmatic, instinctive, and iconic monarch whose decisions shaped the course of English history.

Preview:
The next (final) episode will examine Elizabeth’s later years, her death, and the myths that made her legendary.

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For further reading:
Check out HistoryExtra’s curated list in the episode description for more on Elizabeth I, Mary, Queen of Scots, and the Spanish Armada.

Transcript

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[Rachel Dinning]

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[Rachel Dinning]

That is amazing.

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If you want to hear more facts like that, search for no such thing as a fish wherever you get your podcasts. Welcome to the History Extra podcast. In our latest Sunday series, we've been exploring the life and reign of Elizabeth I. And in today's third episode, historian Nicola Tallis tells Rachel Dinning about the threats the Queen faced both from within and without.

[Rachel Dinning]

Hello and welcome back to our four part History Extra podcast series on the life of Elizabeth I. I'm Rachel Dinning and today I'm joined by Dr. Nicola Tallis, a leading expert in 16th century history and author of many books on Elizabeth. Nicola has spent years researching and writing about Elizabeth's reign and today she's helping us explore some of the more perilous challenges of the Queen's life, from rivals plotting against her, conspiracies in her own court and the looming danger of Spain's armada. So Nicola, to start the podcast today, I want to talk about one of the defining challenges of Elizabeth's middle years, which was actually her cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots. So, to start, how did Mary, Queen of Scots become a problem for Elizabeth?

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

Well, Mary was a problem for Elizabeth from the very start because she was a Catholic cousin who had a strong claim to the English throne in her own right. So that already got Elizabeth's backup, most definitely. And she was also a Catholic figurehead for those who were opposed to Elizabeth's rule or for those who loathed Protestantism. And she also had very strong foreign connections, chiefly in France, where she was briefly queen consort. And the problem where Mary was concerned really intensified for Elizabeth when Mary was forced to abdicate from the throne of Scotland and fled to England, where she sought refuge with Elizabeth. And then this turned Mary from a potential distant threat to a very, very near and potent problem.

[Rachel Dinning]

And explain a bit more about Mary's claim to the English throne. So we know that they were cousins. Why did Mary have a claim to the English throne?

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

Well, Mary was a great granddaughter of Henry vii, Elizabeth was a granddaughter of Henry vii, and Mary was a granddaughter of Margaret, Queen of Scotland, who was Henry VII's daughter. And this did give her a very strong claim to the throne, and especially because many people were of the view that Elizabeth was illegitimate at this time, and this blood relationship made her Elizabeth's cousin once removed. But it's through Henry VII that she has that crucial claim to the throne.

[Rachel Dinning]

So the two queens never actually met in person, despite portrayals. People at home might have seen the 2018 film Mary, Queen of Scots with Margot Robbie and Siir Sheronan. Their only relationship that we can glean from is from the letters that they sent to each other. What do we know about what they said to one another?

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

Well, these letters are numerous, and like you say, they are a crucial source when we're trying to unpick that relationship between the two cousins. And. And what I find quite extraordinary when we look at them is that we also sort of see glimpses of their personality from them. So Mary is very open, very passionate. Elizabeth is far more sort of guarded in what she says. And the letters, to begin with, they do take on quite an affectionate tone. They often refer to themselves as sisters. They exchange compliments, as would have been expected of one another. But we see that as time goes on and events progress, the letters, they do, in some sense, become quite frank. So certainly this is true on Elizabeth's side. So we see, for example, when Mary's second husband, Henry, Lord Darnley, was murdered, Elizabeth writes to Mary in no uncertain terms, urging her to ensure that those who are responsible are punished. She makes it very clear that this is what she would expect her to do. And when Mary sort of goes the other way and she marries Lord Bothwell, who is the man many believe is responsible for Darnley's murder, Elizabeth is utterly horrified at this. And she makes this very, very clear in the language that she uses to Mary in her letters. She basically, she says, how could a worse choice be made for your honour than Bothwell? I mean, it doesn't get any more plain and frank than that. And I think that Mary responds to Elizabeth's coldness, if you like, in even more sort of passionate terms. And again, we see that when Mary is forced to abdicate from the Scottish throne and she flees across the border, throws herself on Elizabeth's mercy, she urges Elizabeth in a letter to hurry up and come and collect her, because she's not even living the life that's fitting for a gentlewoman, let alone a queen. She's not averse to exaggeration either. Mary's very, very passionate. And again, as that relationship changes and Mary ends up a prisoner in Elizabeth's realm, she is not above putting her feelings and her pleas in letters to Elizabeth. She desperately begs Elizabeth to help her. She urges her freedom. So the relationship between the two queens can be really well charted between the. These letters, and we see a real change in them over time as events unfold.

[Rachel Dinning]

So some of the dialogue in that film likely came from the relationship we can see through these letters.

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

Yeah.

[Rachel Dinning]

So Mary arrives in England in 1568. She's fleeing an uprising in Scotland following the death of her husband, Lord Darnley, who you've just described. And this creates this impossible situation for Elizabeth. What once was a bit of a distant threat. Obviously, you've. She's now in England. What were Elizabeth's options for dealing with Mary at this time? And I suppose what were the risks to Elizabeth, too?

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

She has several options. First and foremost, she could have helped to restore Mary, which is what Mary sought in the first instance. But if she did that, she was placing herself in a very difficult situation because Mary was still very, very unpopular in Scotland. And so Elizabeth may have been unnecessarily embroiling herself in affairs that didn't actually really concern her a great deal. So restoration is not really a great option for Elizabeth. There's also the possibility of sending Mary into foreign exile abroad. And again, that's something that Mary considers as quite a good option at one point. As well. But this would have been very dangerous where Elizabeth was concerned, because many still regard Mary as being the legitimate heir to the English throne. So that could have placed Elizabeth's very life in great jeopardy.

[Rachel Dinning]

So if she sends Mary away, she could foster a group of people around her that then they come and seize the throne. Is that the fear?

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

Exactly that. Because Mary has got a lot, lot of support in Catholic Europe, particularly in France and also in Spain. So Elizabeth was very, very vulnerable in this situation. And I think it's actually probably one of the most sensible things that she did, choosing not to send Mary into foreign exile. And then we have the option that Elizabeth does actually go for, which is imprisonment, which I guess offers a sort of middle ground, because it is. Or it could be a temporary solution that offered some flexibility and could be sort of reviewed over time. But it also meant that Mary could be kept under surveillance. Elizabeth could monitor what was going on. She could monitor Mary's letters, who she was speaking to and communicating with, and she also had the option to change that tactic as events dictated. So I think on Elizabeth's part, it's quite a savvy move doing that, obviously one that's not very popular with Mary.

[Rachel Dinning]

Keep her under lock and key, keep her under her watchful eye, so she knows what's going on. And how long did this imprisonment go on for?

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

Well, it went on for 19 years, which I think is probably far longer than either Elizabeth or Mary could ever have envisaged.

[Rachel Dinning]

But we need to be clear about the imprisonment. It's not quite the same thing as when Elizabeth, for example, was imprisoned by her sister Mary in the Tower of London. What was Mary, Queen of Scots, life under imprisonment under Elizabeth?

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

Yeah, you're absolutely right. It's far more. Well, to begin with, when Mary is first imprisoned in Carlisle Castle, it's a relatively relaxed kind of imprisonment. She still has, you know, ladies, luxuries, all of those kinds of things, as she is moved, as Mary is moved further south, that imprisonment does become more and more stringent. But let's be clear, she's still not having a terrible time of it. She still has access to cooks, she still has pets, she is able to ride horses, play golf, do things that Elizabeth would never have been able to do while she was a prisoner in the Tower. So I suppose it's almost like she is, to some intents and purposes, living the lifestyle of a highborn woman, just one who doesn't have control of her own life and can't leave without the permission of the Queen.

[Rachel Dinning]

So Obviously, time passes and Elizabeth, in this time, whilst Mary's imprisoned, is probably sort of stewing over the Mary problem at various points. And eventually one conspiracy seals Mary Queen of Scots fate. And this is the Babington plot of 1586. Before we go into a bit more of the Babington plot, this brings us onto the story of Elizabeth's spymaster, Francis Walsingham. So can you just tell us a bit about who Francis Walsingham was?

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

Yeah, so Francis Walsingham is one of the most prominent counsellors of Elizabeth's later reign. He was someone who was steadfastly and wholeheartedly loyal to Elizabeth. He had also spent some time in France where he had witnessed the St Bartholomew's Day massacre of Protestants. And this had a huge impact on his anti Catholic sentiments, I suppose. But yeah, he was the man who was really responsible for organizing Elizabeth's spy network. And that spy network was crucial really, because it uncovered and thwarted a number of Catholic plots against Elizabeth during her reign. And it in the end, directly contributed to the removal of Mary Queen of Scots.

[Rachel Dinning]

So let's go into that. What was the Babington plot of 1586 and how did it lead to Mary Queen of Scots?

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

The Babington Plot is a plot that was engineered, as you say, in 1586, and gained its name from a gentleman called Anthony Babington, who had served as a page in the household of the Earl of Shrewsbury, which is where he encountered Mary Queen of Scots. And he harboured this almost romantic kind of sentiment towards her and felt that he could be the one to rescue her. And it's a really interesting plot to explore because it sees a number of coded letters smuggled into Mary by means of a double agent called Gilbert Gifford in a beer barrel, which is ingenious in some ways. And unbeknownst to Mary, these letters are being intercepted by Walsingham's agents and they are being transcribed, broken by Thomas Felipez, who is Walsingham's code breaker, because I should have said all of these letters are written in code. Mary was famous, of course, for the numerous codes that she created, that she used for her letters during her imprisonment. And the fact that Mary became embroiled in this plot at this time, I think, tells us a lot about her state of mind as well, because she was at a real low point at this point. You know, she had been imprisoned for over a decade and she was desperately, desperately craving her freedom. A number of previous plots had come to nothing and really she was at her wit's end. And this plot provided her with a strand of hope.

[Rachel Dinning]

So how did this all end? Francis Walsingham and his spies uncover the letters going to Mary. She's implicated Elizabeth, is told. What decision does Elizabeth make about Mary then?

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

Well, Mary was to begin with, she was put trial in October 1586 and she was found guilty of treason. But for Elizabeth, she was really, really conflicted and terribly tormented by this because technically Mary'd been found guilty of treason. The punishment for treason is death. But does that apply to a fellow anointed sovereign? This is the problem that Elizabeth was faced with. And she was riddled with anxiety over this because if she was to put her name to Mary's death warrant, she was basically saying that it was okay to allow the execution of an anointed queen. So Elizabeth was worried that this might set a precedent for the future and her own life. And she really deliberated over this. She prevaricated over this. She put it off. And it was not until February, the first of February, that she eventually signed Mary's death warrant. And it's very clear that this was something that had really troubled her conscience and that she did only very reluctantly. And the order is immediately sent to Fotheringay Castle where Mary is being imprisoned for her execution. She is executed on 8th February 1587. And Elizabeth is immediately horrified, full of remorse, says that she didn't mean for that to happen and that, you know, she absolves herself of all blame, really. She has her secretary, William Davison, who had handed her the death warrant, imprisoned in the tower. And she goes to great lengths to try and apologize to Mary's son, James VI of Scotland. You know, she says, I really didn't mean for that to happen. I'm so sorry. And it's clear that she feels very, very anxious of the consequences of Mary's execution.

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[Rachel Dinning]

for Elizabeth. It's been this very long, drawn out question of what do I do with a rival? Cause that's what Mary has been for decades of Elizabeth's reign. A rival who posed a very real threat and in the end, a very deadly threat to Elizabeth. What do you think the relationship between Elizabeth and Mary tells us about Elizabeth as a ruler?

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

I think it tells us that she was prepared ultimately to do what she needed to do in order to safeguard her own safety as queen, but also the safety of her realm. I think that she was very worried, given Mary's European connections, that perhaps England would or could end up being invaded by Mary's supporters, as indeed it later does. And I think that she felt that she had this sense of duty that overcame any other personal kind of sensibilities. And so I think really she felt that she was acting to safeguard her realm. But I think on a personal level, it left her very troubled.

[Rachel Dinning]

In our previous episode, we looked at Elizabeth's suitors and how she ultimately never chose to marry and she put her head and her position as queen above her heart. And is Mary another example of that?

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

Yeah, most definitely. I think that's true. I think. But I think also Mary had left Elizabeth no other choice. It wasn't as though Elizabeth had suddenly just woken up one day and thought, okay, actually it's time to cut off her head. I think Elizabeth, yes, she was acting with her head, but as a result of Mary's actions.

[Rachel Dinning]

Absolutely. Because Mary could have carried on living well, imprisoned but reasonably comfortably and not taken the decision to undermine Elizabeth.

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

Yeah. And that's what would have happened, I think, had the Babington plot not sealed Mary's fate.

[Rachel Dinning]

So moving on to the Spanish Armada, which was one of the other great challenges of Elizabeth's reign. So Mary's execution, while resolving this huge internal issue that had been going on for so long for Elizabeth, obviously with great difficulty to Elizabeth. Mary's execution also removed the last obstacle to open war with Europe's great superpower, Spain. So Philip II felt compelled to invade. Why did he want to invade England? What were his motivations?

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

Well, there are several motivations. There is a much bigger picture here because strategically, Philip was trying to build and consolidate Spanish power in Europe, and he was really intent on making Spain a global superpower and increasing their influence. And by gaining control of England, this would have given him a stronger foothold to be able to do this. So that's part of it. And he also wanted to improve the trade routes that basically England had encroached upon in the New World. And we see sailors like Sir Francis Drake and John Hawkins, who cause all sorts of problems for the Spanish by raiding Spanish treasure ships. So Philip's very keen to put a stop to all of that as well. And religiously, he was very, very keen to restore Catholicism to England. Of course, he had previously been married to Elizabeth's half sister, Mary, who had already begun that mission to restore England to the folds of the Catholic Church in Rome. And Philip was very keen to continue in that work. And what was more, perhaps most encouraging of all for Philip was that he had the full backing of the Pope, who put all of his support behind this and actually encouraged the mission. So there are several motivations for Philip here, and religion is definitely one of the chief ones among them.

[Rachel Dinning]

And what was the scale of the Spanish Armada? Can you paint a picture of the threat that this posed to England?

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

Well, it must have been quite terrifying, actually, if you were living near the coast and you suddenly saw this fleet of ships approaching, because we're talking about a fleet that's very, very large. It consisted of about 130 ships. So that is huge. And these ships were carrying about 30,000 men. So it must have been quite a terrifying and daun prospect to see these. It was one of the largest fleets to ever invade England. And of course, there's a lot of anxiety about this. There is a lot of worry about what could happen. But it was something. The approach of the Armada and the threat was also something that really served to unify Elizabeth's people, and that was really crucial.

[Rachel Dinning]

So, on that note, what was Elizabeth's strategy for tackling this threat, her strategy

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

really was to use propaganda. That's exactly what we see her doing. She rallies her troops, I suppose, and we see her going down to Tilbury to approach her forces directly. And this is, of course, when she makes that iconic speech at Tilbury, and it has been immortalised for posterity, as has the Armada portrait that's painted to commemorate this event. So Elizabeth's strategy is all about engaging in her people and all about rallying them to come to her aid, to. They're all in this together and let's fight off this force.

[Rachel Dinning]

You mentioned in your answer, one of Elizabeth's most famous moments, the Tilbury speech. Why was this speech so powerful?

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

This is a really iconic moment in Elizabeth's life and also in her career. And I think that there's probably several points that we can draw from this, because in terms of the speech, it really showcased Elizabeth's vulnerability to her people. You know, the way that she says, I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman. So she's appealing to them in a sense that shows that they're all at risk here. And that's something that really resonates with people. And the language that she uses is also very, very emotional and it's a very clear call to action. You know, she promises to live or die amongst you all. So they are very much. There is this sense that everybody is in this together and that's what makes it very, very powerful. But it also highlights this image of Gloriana that Elizabeth is trying to create, that they will all face this common enemy of Spain together and that they will live or die as a result of it.

[Rachel Dinning]

So this is a real key moment in showing Elizabeth's skill as someone who can stir the masses and use words and propaganda. She's using the full force of her regal.

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

Yeah. And I mean, the fact that we're still talking about it now, more than 400 years later, shows how effective it was. Really. This is so powerful. Her words and her actions at that time, they are iconic.

[Rachel Dinning]

And beyond this speech that stirred people, what were the tactical and environmental factors that ultimately led to the crushing defeat of the Spanish Armada? And, you know, Elizabeth's gone down in history for. For crushing this fleet of ships approaching.

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

She has. But I think that we also need to take a moment to really appreciate and recognise the skill of several of her commanders, most notably, of course, Francis Drake and also Lord Howard of Effingham, who. They really understood the changing conditions and they were able to adapt to the situation. And this put Them at odds with the Spanish commanders, who were less experienced, weren't quite as tactically aware. And we also see, for example, that the English galleons were much faster than the very slow Spanish ships and easily maneuverable. And they also had longer ranging cannons. And these tactics were employed to full effect by these English commanders. And they've proved to be far more effective and safer, actually than the Spanish tactics, which were to get close enough to ships that they were able to board them. And then there are, of course, environmental factors as well. There were storms that blew the Spanish ships, some of the Spanish ships off course, which meant that they crashed into the rocks. But. But of course, this was later taken advantage of for propaganda purposes, and it was said that this was God's intervention. So there are several reasons, but I do think that perhaps the strength of the English commanders has been a little bit underrated.

[Rachel Dinning]

To sum up, in this episode, we've been looking at Elizabeth's enemies. We've looked at a really good example of one of her enemies within. So this was Mary, Queen of Scots. And we've looked at this example of an enemy, an external enemy, the Spanish Armada. And if we can sort of sum up how Elizabeth dealt with challenges like these, what does it show about how she operated as a queen?

[Dr. Nicola Tallis]

I think ultimately, she always put her country first. That's what I will say about Elizabeth. And I think that she had a shrewd and strong sense of her own judgment. And she always, ultimately, as we said earlier, she did, she listened to advice, she did trust advice, but ultimately, I think she trusted her own instincts first and foremost. And I think that that's how we see her reacting to challenges throughout her reign and her queenship. I think she ultimately, nine times out of 10, did what her gut told her to do. And again, on most occasions, it was a good call.

[Rachel Dinning]

Thank you, Nicola. That's been absolutely fascinating. So to paint a picture, we've had Elizabeth facing one of the greatest threats of her reign, Spanish Armada, and emerging victorious. In the next and final episode, we'll be looking at Elizabeth's final years, her death, and the enduring myths that turned her into one of England's most iconic monarchs. If you enjoyed today's episode, don't forget to check out my roundup of further reading. It's in the description below. We've got a whole host of articles on Elizabeth, on the Spanish Armada threat, on her relationship with Mary Queen of Scots, an article about the letters with Mary Queen of Scots, so don't forget to check that out. It's in the description below.

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