Breaking the Mars Curse

Summary

Breaking the Mars Curse: A Detailed Summary of "HISTORY This Week" Podcast Episode

Introduction

The "Breaking the Mars Curse" episode of the HISTORY This Week podcast delves into the tumultuous history of Mars exploration, highlighting the numerous failed missions that plagued both the United States and the Soviet Union. Hosted by Sally Helm and featuring insights from William Sheehan, author of Discovering Mars, the episode traces the evolution of humanity's quest to explore the Red Planet, culminating in the successful orbit of NASA's Mariner 9 and the eventual unraveling of the so-called Mars curse.

Historical Context: The Early Mars Missions and the Curse

Sally Helm sets the stage by recounting the series of unsuccessful attempts to explore Mars during the height of the space race between the United States and the Soviet Union. From the Soviet Zond mission in 1964, which failed due to communication issues, to multiple failed launches such as Mars 1969A and Mars 1969B, the narrative underscores the high failure rate with the US and Soviet space programs launching 15 missions and losing 11 to failures. Helm describes this streak of misfortune as the "Mars curse," painting a picture of Mars as a planet guarded by a "great galactic ghoul gobbling up their ships."

Beliefs in Martian Civilizations: Percival Lowell and H.G. Wells

The episode transitions into the historical fascination with Mars, particularly focusing on Percival Lowell, an influential astronomer who popularized the idea of Martian canals—supposed channels built by an advanced civilization to irrigate a dying planet. Helm explains Lowell's obsession, ignited by Giovanni Schiaparelli's 1877 observations of "canali" on Mars. William Sheehan elaborates on Lowell's influence, noting, "Lowell was an extraordinarily effective communicator with the public. He was a brilliant lecturer" ([10:41]).

This belief in Martian civilizations was further cemented by H.G. Wells' 1898 novel, The War of the Worlds, which portrayed Martians as invaders seeking Earth's resources. The novel's impact was magnified by Orson Welles' infamous 1938 radio broadcast that caused panic among listeners who believed the Martian invasion was real. Sheehan remarks, "Mars became the premier object of science fiction and also of scientific investigation" ([11:50]).

The Space Race Shift to the Moon

Amidst these Mars-focused aspirations, the space race took a pivotal turn towards the Moon, especially after President John F. Kennedy's famous 1962 speech: "We choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard" ([12:09]). This shift redirected NASA's priorities, sidelining Mars exploration despite the continued interest and hope among scientists and the public alike.

The 1971 Mars Missions: Mariner 9 and Soviet Mars 2,3

By 1971, both the US and Soviet space programs aimed to overcome the Mars curse. The Soviets launched Mars 2 and Mars 3 with ambitious plans to land probes on Mars' surface, striving to be the first to achieve this milestone. Concurrently, NASA launched Mariner 9, intending to be the first man-made object to orbit another planet.

However, shortly after their launches, all three missions faced unexpected challenges. Mariner 9 encountered the largest global dust storm ever recorded on Mars, rendering the planet's surface invisible through telescope observations ([18:18]). Sheehan recalls, "There was not a single detail to be seen. And what scientists had discovered was the largest global dust storm..." ([18:30]). This storm jeopardized the success of Mariner 9, leading NASA to remotely shut down its cameras to conserve resources ([21:03]).

The Soviet missions faced their own setbacks. Mars 2's probe became the first man-made object to crash into Mars, while Mars 3's probe achieved a brief landing but lost contact after just 1 minute and 50 seconds, likely due to the harsh Martian conditions ([21:49]).

Mariner 9: Overcoming the Curse

Despite the overwhelming odds, Mariner 9 persevered. Weeks after its mission began, the dust storm began to clear, allowing scientists to reactivate the spacecraft's cameras. As Sally Helm narrates, "By mid December, weeks later, the dust begins to clear and scientists power up the cameras on Mariner 9" ([22:35]). The spacecraft proceeded to map 70% of Mars' surface, capturing detailed images that revealed previously unseen geological features.

One of the most significant discoveries was Olympus Mons, the largest mountain in the solar system, towering at 72,000 feet—equivalent to two and a half Mount Everests ([24:10]). Additionally, Mariner 9 unveiled Valles Marineris, an immense canyon system that dwarfs the Earth's Grand Canyon, providing concrete evidence of Mars' complex geological history ([26:04]).

Scientific Insights and Legacy

The successful orbit and data collection by Mariner 9 had profound implications for our understanding of Mars. Carl Sagan, a young scientist on the Mariner team, analyzed temperature data and developed theories about planetary atmospheres, including the concept of a possible nuclear winter on Earth ([23:48]). Furthermore, the revelation that the greenish seasonal changes observed on Mars were actually due to wind-driven dust rather than vegetation dispelled long-held beliefs in a living Martian ecosystem ([25:13]).

Despite these advancements, the mystery of Mars' past water presence lingered. Evidence of liquid water flowing through Valles Marineris suggested that Mars once had a more hospitable environment, raising questions about the planet's potential to support life. The episode concludes by highlighting ongoing missions, such as NASA's Perseverance rover in July 2024, which discovered rock formations with spots that could indicate ancient microbial life, keeping the hope of uncovering past life on Mars alive ([27:44]).

Conclusion

"Breaking the Mars Curse" encapsulates the enduring human fascination with Mars, the scientific challenges overcome, and the tantalizing possibilities that continue to drive exploration. From the early missteps and mythical interpretations to the groundbreaking successes of Mariner 9, the episode illustrates how perseverance and technological advancements have gradually peeled back the layers of mystery surrounding the Red Planet. As William Sheehan optimistically states, "I would much rather have a history of a living Mars than a dead Mars" ([27:20]), reflecting the ongoing quest to answer one of humanity's most profound questions: Was there ever life on Mars?

Notable Quotes

• William Sheehan ([06:30]): "So that means even at its best it's a very small object and requires a really good telescope like the one behind me."

• John F. Kennedy ([12:09]): "We choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard."

• William Sheehan ([10:41]): "Lowell was an extraordinarily effective communicator with the public. He was a brilliant lecturer..."

• William Sheehan ([27:20]): "I would much rather have a history of a living Mars than a dead Mars..."

Key Figures Mentioned

• Sally Helm: Host of the episode.
• William Sheehan: Co-author of Discovering Mars and guest expert.
• Percival Lowell: Astronomer who theorized about Martian canals.
• H.G. Wells: Author of The War of the Worlds.
• Carl Sagan: Scientist on the Mariner team who later became renowned for his contributions to astronomy and planetary science.
• John F. Kennedy: Former US President who emphasized lunar exploration.

Final Thoughts

"Breaking the Mars Curse" offers a comprehensive exploration of Mars missions, intertwining scientific endeavors with cultural narratives. It highlights the resilience of scientists and engineers in overcoming setbacks, the impact of visionary thinkers, and the inexhaustible human curiosity that continues to propel us toward the stars. For those intrigued by the history and future of Mars exploration, this episode provides a captivating and informative journey through one of space exploration's most challenging chapters.

Transcript

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[History Channel Announcer]

The History Channel Original Podcast.

[Sally Helm]

History this week, October 27, 1972 I'm Sally Helm Scientists are probably some of the least likely people to believe in curses, but even they may have been starting to wonder. It's 1972. The United States and the Soviet Union are deep into the space race, and they've been trying for years to reach the planet Mars. In 1964, the Soviet Union sent a mission called Zond to it passed by Mars, but its communications failed, so scientists couldn't learn much. In 1969, the Soviet craft Mars 1969A exploded about 7 minutes after launch. Mars 1969B fared even worse. One of its rockets exploded 0.2 seconds after launch. The craft tipped sideways and then the rest of the rockets exploded and it crashed. In 1971, NASA's Mariner 8 also malfunctioned shortly after launch. In total, the US and the Soviet Union have launched 15 missions to explore Mars, and 11 have failed. That is what has scientists talking about a Mars curse. A great galactic ghoul gobbling up their ships. But finally, the curse seems to have been broken. On this day, NASA's Mariner 9 is at the very end of a year long mission. It made it off the launch pad. It made it out of the Earth's atmosphere. It made it all the way through space and ended up in the orbit of the cursed planet Mars. It's the first man made object to orbit another planet. But now it has finally reached the end of the line. It's run out of gas and so today it will end its service. Scientists at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California send it one last deactivate. And with that, the mission is complete.

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[Wesley Levisay]

Hello everyone, my name is Wesley Levisay. From the History of the Second World War podcast, join me on a journey through the most destructive conflict in human history. A journey that will take us not just through the famous campaigns and cataclysmic battles, but also to the lesser, well known corners of the war that touched millions all over the world as we try and answer not just the questions of what and where, but how and why. You can find history of the Second World War on all major podcast platforms or at historyofthesecondworld war.com hey, it's Austin James.

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[Sally Helm]

Safety info found @freestylelibre us before the mariner missions, some people truly believed that Mars might be inhabited by an advanced alien civilization. But Mariner 9 has served a very important sending back detailed images of this faraway planet and finally unlocking the secrets of Mars. Today, our fraught relationship with the planet Mars. How did so many people come to believe that the planet was inhabited by technologically sophisticated canal building Martians? And when Mariner 9 let us finally look at the real Mars, what did we see? We can't really say when Mars was discovered. It's not like it's hiding. It's pretty visible in the night sky, bright reddish tint. However, Galileo Galilei, legendary Italian astronomer, is the first to look at Mars through a telescope. He can't get a great view though. The low tech telescope plus Mars is small. It's only about twice the size of the moon and it's 140 times further away.

[William Sheehan]

So that means even at its best it's a very small object and requires a really good telescope like the one behind me.

[Sally Helm]

William Sheehan is the co author of the book Discovering Mars. And yes, he was talking to us with a very large telescope right behind him.

[William Sheehan]

If your audience could visualize where we're talking, they would see the Lowell Observatory's 24 inch Clark refractor. Because I'm in the dome of that story telescope at the present moment.

[Sally Helm]

The Lowell Observatory is a famous observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona. Sheehan's been going there recently to research his next book. And this huge telescope is of course way better than anything Galileo could have used or any astronomers of his age. They were trying though to see what they could of the planet Mars. They noticed some confusing dark spots on the planet.

[William Sheehan]

And by the early 19th century some of these markings, the darker ones seemed to have a bluish tint or a greenish tint.

[Sally Helm]

A bluish tint, could that be an ocean? A greenish tint? Maybe that's some kind of forest or field. Then in 1877, the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli notices these lines on the Martian surface.

[William Sheehan]

Now he used the Italian word canali, which can mean any of a number of things. It can mean channels, it can mean canals, it can mean grooves. I mean it has a lot of different meanings. And he just used it as a shorthand basically to sort of say, well, I don't know what these features are, but let's call them canali.

[Sally Helm]

This concept of canals ends up leading directly into one of the weirdest periods of our history with the planet Mars. All because an American named Percival Lowell is the one to pick up on Schiaparelli's discovery. Lowell is an aristocrat born into money and he's brilliant. He studied physics and math, but he couldn't figure out what to do with his life. He broke off an engagement, left the family textile business, briefly became an expert on Japan. And then in 1893 he gets a Christmas present from his cousin Mary, a book about Mars. It includes some of Schiaparelli's drawings of the planet Lowell reads the book feverishly and becomes obsessed. Before you know it, he is building an observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, the same one that Bill Sheehan was in when he called us.

[William Sheehan]

And he set out with a real clear program of what he was hoping to find here in Arizona. Namely, he really thought that he would be able to find evidence with a fine telescope that the canals were exactly.

[Sally Helm]

Literally, that exactly, literally canals built by an advanced Martian civilization to spread water across the dry surface of Mars.

[William Sheehan]

The explanation Lowell was absolutely certain of to the day of his death was that they were canals that had been built on in order to irrigate a dying planet, which is basically in its last throes, turning to desert, losing all of its water supply, and maintaining a last grasp on life before it barreled into extinction.

[Sally Helm]

Lowell just basically imagined this whole epic saga, but he did start to see evidence of his theory. Like, those greenish areas on Mars seemed to darken with the seasons. So he thought, okay, the plants are growing more during this time because of the water brought by the canals. It's kind of a stretch, but he's telling everyone.

[William Sheehan]

Lowell was an extraordinarily effective communicator with the public. He was a brilliant lecturer. And of course, some of his peers in the scientific world really detested him, you know, as being just somebody that was out there grabbing publicity. But the general public loved it. And why wouldn't they? I mean, he basically turned Mars into this story, the story of this advanced civilization struggling for survival on a dying planet.

[Sally Helm]

People are really into this. And, you know, Lowell's imagined version of Mars is inspiring.

[William Sheehan]

Lowell had depicted the Martians as these super intelligent, benign, peaceable folks that had gotten past party politics. You know, they basically had abolished warfare. H.G. wells, on the other hand, Percival Lowell.

[Sally Helm]

Doesn'T have a monopoly on stories about Mars. Soon, science fiction writer H.G. wells puts forward his own vision.

[William Sheehan]

So he made the Martians villains.

[Sally Helm]

In Wells 1898 novel the War of the Worlds, Martians invade Earth. Mars is a dying planet, and they've come to extract Earth's resources. The novel makes an extra impact 40 years after its publication when director Orson Welles broadcasts a radio version that sounds like a real news report. Some people tuning in believe that Martians have invaded New Jersey. All of this solidifies Mars place in the public imagination.

[William Sheehan]

Mars became the premier object of science fiction and also of scientific investigation, trailing behind that because Mars was the one place we wanted to know about.

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However, for the eyes of the world.

[John F. Kennedy]

Now look into space, to the moon.

[Sally Helm]

And to the planets beyond September 1962 is the height of the Cold War. And by one very important metric, the US is way behind.

[William Sheehan]

The Russians at that point were taking no prisoners in the space race. They were first in everything, first man in space, first woman in space. So that's when Kennedy made his famous speech.

[John F. Kennedy]

We choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other.

[Sally Helm]

Things, not because they are easy, but.

[John F. Kennedy]

Because they are hard.

[Sally Helm]

Because that goes the target is now the Moon. And as a result, Mars kind of gets sidelined in the public mind. But NASA is still making progress towards sending spacecraft to the Red Planet. And even in the early 1960s, some people are still holding out hope that there might be Martians alive and well up there, including a young Bill Sheehan.

[William Sheehan]

I mean I grew up during that era. You know. I got my first telescope in 1964 and I read all the several years out of date books about astronomy that I could find at the branch library near my house.

[Sally Helm]

And those out of date books don't have definitive proof that there aren't Martians up there digging canals, trying to save their planet.

[William Sheehan]

It was still possible at that time to believe that Lowell's theories might somehow prove to be the case.

[Sally Helm]

In 1960, NASA starts the Mariner program. Mariner probes are equipped with cameras and other tools to observe both Venus and Mars. The Soviet Union has a Mars program too. Marsnik 1 launches in 1960, but fails. Marsnik 2 also fails. Sputnik 22 fails. Mars 1 fails. Finally, the US launches its first Mars probe. Mariner 3, it fails too. But three weeks later, Mariner 4 successfully makes it to space.

[William Sheehan]

Unfortunately, I would say if there were ever a Debbie Downer spacecraft, It was Mariner 4.

[Sally Helm]

Mariner 4 is armed with a single low definition camera. It zooms by Mars. It doesn't orbit or even slow down.

[William Sheehan]

And it sent back these fray drab, really ugly pictures.

[Sally Helm]

But they are the first images that humans have ever taken up close of another planet. You can make out some craters, some ridges. That's about it. Importantly though, there's no sign of life. Other instruments reveal that Mars barely even has an atmosphere. There is no evidence whatsoever of an advanced civilization trying to irrigate a dying planet. A ten year old Bill Sheehan is disappointed. And when it comes to Mars exploration, this kind of takes the wind out of the sails. After all, this looks like just a dry cratered hunk of rock.

[William Sheehan]

All of the scientists after Mariner 4 felt this. Why go so far afield to just explore another moon?

[Sally Helm]

That's one Small step for man. One triumph leap for mankind. The big moment. Neil Armstrong takes the first step on the moon. 650 million people watch from Earth. The United States wins the space race. It's safe to say very few people are thinking about Mars. But at NASA, the Mariner program continues two weeks after the moon landing. Mariners 6 and 7 zoom by Mars and take some more blurry pictures. And the Soviet Union's Mars program continues too.

[William Sheehan]

We wanted to prove that we could do it better than the Russians. And they wanted to prove that they could beat us at something.

[Sally Helm]

The Soviets have big plans for the Red planet. Their next missions, Mars 2 and Mars 3, are actually going to land probes on the surface. These would be the first man made objects to land on Mars, even though nothing had even orbited the planet before. They're skipping a step. The Americans are more cautious. They're planning a reconnaissance mission, a craft that will orbit Mars, taking photographs closer to the planet's surface than ever before. They're both targeting the year 1971 because that is when Mars is the closest it will be to Earth for a very long time.

[William Sheehan]

It's about 35 million miles, or for those of you, the very rare people in the audience who are using the metric system, 56 million kilometers.

[Sally Helm]

The month of May is when the two planets will be at their very closest. So the US and the USSR launch five total missions that month. Two fall victim to the Mars curse, but three make it out of the atmosphere. The Soviets, Mars 2 and Mars 3. And the Americans, Mariner 9. Mariner 9 hopes to become the first man made object to orbit another planet. It'll take all kinds of measurements and hopefully send back those clearer photographs. But soon after Mariner 9 leaves Earth, there's a problem. Astronomers across the world begin to notice something through their telescopes, including, including the young amateur astronomer Bill Sheehan.

[William Sheehan]

Well, lo and behold, I was a senior in high school at a small telescope when I was watching Mars. And I remember, you know, the usually visible features like Syrtis Major and some of the other prominent areas were increasingly difficult to make out. And I pretty much sort of gave it up because I thought it was just my telescope.

[Sally Helm]

It was not just Bill Sheehan's telescope. Scientists everywhere are seeing it. Mars is getting blurrier and blurrier.

[William Sheehan]

There was not a single detail to be seen. And what scientists had discovered was the largest global dust storm that had ever been recorded in the history of human observation of the Red Planet.

[Sally Helm]

Before they know it, the surface of Mars is completely hidden. Now is this dust storm just bad luck for Mariner 9 or a conspiracy?

[William Sheehan]

There were some people that thought that the whole dust storm thing had been set up by the Martians to obscure so they would have time to hide it from view.

[Sally Helm]

If the dust storm continues, Mariner 9 won't be able to see a thing, which would mean it's gone to Mars for nothing. A wasted mission. Scientists just have to hope that the biggest dust storm they had ever seen on Mars will clear in time.

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[John F. Kennedy]

Atlassian dot@lessian3 Mariner spacecraft have flown by Mars in recent years. They were fleeting glimpses and the craft did not fly close to the mysterious red planet. 2,000 miles was the closest. Mariner 9 changed all that as its.

[Sally Helm]

Breaking record on November 14, 1971, Mariner 9 enters Mars orbit. But the dust storm is still raging. So NASA makes a decision.

[William Sheehan]

Essentially, Mariner 9's cameras went into hibernation.

[Sally Helm]

Scientists remotely shut down the cameras on board the spacecraft. Taking pictures now would be a waste of resources. Roughly two weeks later, the Soviets Mars 2 enters orbit and then Mars 3 a few days after that. And unlike Mariner 9, these spacecraft couldn't be controlled remotely.

[William Sheehan]

They were all pre programmed. So essentially when Mars 2 and 3 arrived at Mars, they went into operation.

[Sally Helm]

They start snapping pictures while Mars is still engulfed in dust.

[William Sheehan]

The Russian photographs were, I think they got 60 images and they were essentially blank.

[Sally Helm]

And remember, Mars 2 and Mars 3 are not just orbiting, they're also sending probes down to the surface. A surface that is again experiencing an almost unimaginably large dust storm. So the probe from Mars 2 becomes the first man made object to crash into Mars. The probe from Mars 3 it does land. Although there is still debate over whether this landing really counts. It's on the surface for 1 minute and 50 seconds before contact is lost.

[William Sheehan]

Most likely they ended up in gale like conditions where essentially all their electronics in that were coated with dust and unable to function.

[Sally Helm]

For Mariner nine, patience wins out. By mid December. Weeks later, the dust begins to clear and scientists power up the cameras on.

[John F. Kennedy]

Mariner 9 as it circles the planet. Twice a day it will photograph and gather data for at least three months, mapping 70% of the planet's surface.

[Sally Helm]

The images come in slowly. It takes five hours for the signal to travel from Mariner 9 to NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. When they arrive, the images are broadcast on a TV screen in the upstairs imaging office. Scientists then take polaroids of the screen and bring them downstairs. The science team pastes them on this massive globe, mapping the surface of Mars, Polaroid by pasted Polaroid.

[John F. Kennedy]

As the Mariner 9 returns its vast accumulation of data and pictures, scientists will have their first close up view and hopefully clues to the history and evolution of Mars, the Earth and the solar system.

[Sally Helm]

One of the scientists on the Mariner team is a young Carl Sagan. He's studying temperature data from Mariner 9 while the dust storm is still going on. And he later uses that as the basis for a theory about a possible nuclear winter that could be caused by a atomic weapons on Earth. He's also among the first to notice an intriguing feature on the surface of Mars.

[William Sheehan]

And so he ran down the hall and he said hey look, I can see something on Mars. And it turned out to be this set of huge shield volcanoes.

[Sally Helm]

Shield volcanoes, they're low and broad, named because they look a little like a shield lying on the ground. And one of these shield volcanoes on Mars is so far as we know, the largest mountain in the entire solar system. It's named Olympus Mons.

[William Sheehan]

Olympus Mons is as large as the state of Arizona.

[Sally Helm]

It's also 72,000ft high. Two and a half Mount Everests. As Mariner 9 continues its orbit, Mars slowly comes into focus and scientists answer some old questions, like about those dark green areas that seemed to change with the seasons, that might have been vast swaths of plant life. They are actually evidence of Mars epic winds.

[William Sheehan]

What we see on Mars, this mix of darker and lighter is just essentially a little like an edge sketch where these different kinds of little things are being Scattered about by the winds. And so the light stuff gets blown over the dark. And then after the seasons change again and the winds shift direction, then it gets scoured off again. And then the dark areas are revealed. And so all of this kind of meteorological phenomena is essentially what created the illusion that Mars was a living planet with vegetation that waxed with the spring or waned with the autumn.

[Sally Helm]

As for Percival Lowell's biggest theory, the Martian made canals that had been built to irrigate a dying planet.

[William Sheehan]

The answer is neither completely yes nor completely no.

[Sally Helm]

I mean, no. There isn't evidence that Martians dug these waterways. But there are massive canyons on Mars and one of them lines up with the canals that Lowell had mapped out. Valles Marineris, named for Mariner 9.

[William Sheehan]

It's essentially the Grand Canyon of the Earth, Writ large on Mars, but bedwarfs. The Grand Canyon, which could easily fit.

[Sally Helm]

Inside it, isn't a canal, but at one point water probably ran through it. And this evidence of liquid water, it raises some very big questions.

[William Sheehan]

Mars had this era when it had running water on the surface, and then it lost its oceans, it lost its water, it lost its atmosphere. Now the atmosphere is so thin and the planet is bone dry. So what happened to Mars?

[Sally Helm]

Scientists are still trying to figure that out. Since Mariner 9, there have been more than 30 missions to Mars. And the so called Curse continues. 12 of those missions experienced some kind of failure. But we've still learned a lot, Though we haven't answered the big was there ever life on Mars? Bill Sheehan hopes that the answer is yes.

[William Sheehan]

I mean, I would much rather have a history of a living Mars than a dead Mars, even though I also believe that the secret to happiness is low expectations. So I don't want to get my hopes up too much.

[Sally Helm]

But Sheehan has recently gotten to feel a little bit of hope. In July of 2024, NASA's Perseverance rover found a very interesting rock.

[William Sheehan]

It was laid down very early in Martian history when there was all of this liquid water that was flowing on the surface. And so we're going to essentially be peeling back the past of Mars and finding out all the intricacies of its earlier chemical geological history.

[Sally Helm]

Much of that story has not yet been revealed. But this rock contains distinctive little spots, Spots that could have been formed billions of years ago by ancient microbial life. We still don't know, but it's possible that this is the first real sign of some kind of Martian from way back when water did flow through those canyons, maybe even used by Martians as canals. Thanks for listening to History this Week, a Back Pocket Studios production in partnership with the History Channel. To stay updated on all things History this Week, sign [e-mail] and if you have any thoughts or questions, send us an [e-mail] Special thanks to our guest, William Sheehan, author of Discovering A History of Observation and Exploration of the Red Planet. Also a thank you to Kevin Schindler, historian of the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona. This episode was produced and sound designed by Ben Dickstein and produced and story edited by me, Sally Helm for Back Pocket Studios. Our executive producers are Ben Dickstein and David Weisbord from the History Channel. Our executive producers are Eli Lehrer and Liv Fiddler. Don't forget to follow, rate and review History this Week wherever you get your podcasts and we will see you next week. Hey listeners, we just want to let you know that as we head into the holidays, History this Week is not going anywhere. You will have plenty of new stories to share with family and friends, so when you're showing off everything you learned, make sure to tell them you got it from History this Week.