Francisco Menéndez & Fort Mose

Summary

---

Stuff You Missed in History Class

Episode: Francisco Menéndez & Fort Mose

Hosts: Tracy B. Wilson & Holly Fry
Date: February 25, 2026

---

Overview

This episode explores the remarkable and often-overlooked story of Fort Mose—the first officially sanctioned settlement for free Black people in what is today the United States, established outside St. Augustine, Florida, in the Spanish colonial era. The episode focuses on how enslaved Africans escaped from English colonies to Spanish Florida, the evolution of Spanish policy around freedom and manumission, the life and leadership of Captain Francisco Menéndez, and the eventual fate of Fort Mose and its people. Holly and Tracy discuss the shifting colonial alliances, racial policies, key figures, and the significance of Fort Mose for Black and multicultural history in America.

---

Key Discussion Points & Insights

1. Escaping Slavery: Beyond the North

• Tracy sets the stage by contrasting familiar stories of the Underground Railroad to Canada with lesser-known escapes to Mexico and, crucially, Florida.

  "I am not sure, though, whether we have ever talked about the period in which people were escaping to Florida. At the time, Florida was Spanish territory and slavery had not been abolished there." (02:47)

• Spanish Florida, despite permitting slavery, provided a distinct legal context, allowing some pathways to manumission and citizenship.

2. Spain’s Colonial Legacy and Policies

• Holly contextualizes St. Augustine as the oldest continuously occupied city from the colonial era—older than Jamestown—and acknowledges indigenous settlements predating both. (04:24)

• Spanish colonial society permitted manumission; enslaved people could sometimes buy their freedom and had limited rights.

  "Spanish law also recognized some limited rights and protections for enslaved people, including the right to own property and earn money, which made it somewhat easier for people to purchase their own freedom..." (06:05)

• The result: Florida, like some other Spanish colonies, had a relatively large population of free Black people, even in the 16th century. (06:44)

3. Geopolitics, Migration, and the Birth of Fort Mose

• Conflict between England and Spain over territory (especially around Florida and Carolina) helped create opportunities for enslaved people to escape. (07:38)
• From the 1680s, self-liberated Africans began reaching St. Augustine. Spanish authorities allowed converts to Catholicism to remain free and employed—initially on a case-by-case basis.
• In 1693, King Carlos II made it official policy: anyone fleeing English colonies who converted to Catholicism would be given liberty.

  "The reason Carlos gave for this was, quote, so that by their example and by my liberality, Others will do the same. But he was not in any way advocating for abolition, and his motivations Were more pragmatic than humanitarian." (18:18)

4. The Foundation and Structure of Fort Mose (1738)

• As the free Black population grew, Spanish authorities established Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose—Fort Mose—just north of St. Augustine, as a free Black settlement and line of defense.

  "This was the first officially sanctioned free black settlement in north america." (19:20)

• Fort Mose was diverse: residents included freed and enslaved Africans, indigenous people, Europeans who married into the community, and their children. (20:32)

• Although nominally a move toward freedom, this was also driven by segregation and military strategy.

5. The Story of Captain Francisco Menéndez

• Francisco Menéndez, a Mandinga (Mande) from West Africa, survived enslavement, escaped Carolina, and became the celebrated leader of Fort Mose’s militia.

  "He was Mandinga, that's a Mande speaking ethnic group from West Africa. He was probably born somewhere in the Gambia river region..." (21:04)

• His leadership and repeated petitions for freedom underscore the tenuous position of even “free” Black people in Spanish territory, as bureaucracy and exploitative policies persisted. (23:49)

6. Fort Mose’s Role in War and Resistance

• The fort’s militia fought to defend Spanish Florida, notably in 1740 when the British laid siege to St. Augustine.

• The “Bloody Mose” attack (June 26, 1740) was a pivotal battle in which Menéndez led a successful surprise attack to recapture the fort from British forces, despite high danger.

  "More than half of the 170 British occupiers and their allies were either killed or captured, while only 10 people were killed and 20 wounded on the Spanish side, and this battle was nicknamed Bloody Mose." (33:04)

• Fort Mose likely served as a destination for those fleeing in the Stono Rebellion—one of the most significant slave uprisings in colonial British America. (26:00)

7. Decline, Legacy, and Rediscovery of Fort Mose

• After Spain ceded Florida to Britain in 1763 (Treaty of Paris), Fort Mose’s Black population was relocated to Cuba, where records of them mostly disappear. (37:35)
• Florida’s return to Spain in 1783 temporarily revived the policy of granting freedom to escaped slaves—until 1790, when Spain, pressured by the US, reversed course. (39:01)
• Later, many people sought refuge in Seminole territory, with the emergence of the Black Seminoles. (40:33)
• Fort Mose’s ruins were rediscovered in the 20th century and are now a state park and National Historic Landmark, acknowledged for its importance on the Black Heritage Trail and Gullah Geechee Corridor.

  "Fort Mose was named a National historic landmark in 1995, and it is now part of Florida's Black Heritage Trail. A recreation of the 1738 fort was built there just last year." (43:26)

---

Notable Quotes & Memorable Moments

• On Spain’s Policy:
  "The reason Carlos gave for this was, quote, so that by their example and by my liberality, Others will do the same. But he was not in any way advocating for abolition, and his motivations Were more pragmatic than humanitarian." — Holly Fry (18:18)

• On Complexity of 'Freedom':
  "We have not really spelled this out, But Spain's offer of freedom came with a lot of conditions. People who escaped to Florida were not considered enslaved anymore, but for men, that militia service was mandatory." — Tracy B. Wilson (34:42)

• On the Battle of Bloody Mose:
  "More than half of the 170 British occupiers and their allies were either killed or captured, while only 10 people were killed and 20 wounded on the Spanish side, and this battle was nicknamed Bloody Mose." — Holly Fry (33:04)

• On Rediscovery:
  "Fort Mose was named a National historic landmark in 1995, and it is now part of Florida's Black Heritage Trail..." — Tracy B. Wilson (43:26)

---

Important Segment Timestamps

• Introduction to Escapes to Florida – 02:47
• Spanish Colonial System & Laws – 06:05
• First documented self-liberated escapees to Florida – 09:24
• 1693 Spanish Decree on Freedom – 17:44
• Establishment of Fort Mose – 19:20
• Life and petitions of Francisco Menéndez – 21:04, 23:49
• “Bloody Mose” battle – 33:04
• Relocation to Cuba & loss in historical record – 37:35
• End of Spanish sanctuary policy (1790) – 39:01
• Archaeology and rediscovery, modern commemoration – 43:26
• Fort Mose’s place in the Gullah Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor – 44:03

---

Tone & Language

• Conversational, detailed, and educational, with interjections of humor and personal asides, especially in discussion of cats (“I want to read that. Thank you so much for this picture and for giving such great names to these cats...”—Tracy, 45:45).
• The hosts reiterate nuanced points about freedom and oppression without romanticizing or glossing over complexities.

---

Summary

This episode sheds light on a neglected chapter of American history, where enslaved Africans found a measure of freedom—and built a diverse, resilient community—amidst the rivalries and shifting policies of Spanish and British colonial powers. Francisco Menéndez emerges as a powerful figure who, along with many others, navigated uncertain liberty and risk for the hope of true autonomy. Fort Mose’s survival, rediscovery, and present-day recognition invite listeners to reflect on the layered history of freedom, race, and resistance well before the official abolition of slavery in the United States.

---

Transcript

[Tracy B. Wilson]

This is an iHeart podcast. Guaranteed Human. Hello.

[Bowen Yang]

Malcolm Glauble here. We're here in New York City with T Mobile for business recording another episode of Revisionist history about how 5G network slicing strengthens trust and connections across worldwide industries.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Slicing can be used for so many different things. We're here with our friends from CNN from Siemens Energy. The ways that it can be used, frankly, are limitless and are really, really built to think through. How can T Mobile understand the pain points that our customers have? Smash those pain points and help you deliver very specific outcomes?

[Matt Rogers]

This is Matt Rogers from Las Culturistas with Matt Rogers and Bowen Yang.

[Bowen Yang]

This is Bowen Yang from Los Culturistas with Matt Rogers and Bowen Yang.

[Matt Rogers]

Hey, so what if you could boost the WiFi to one of your devices when you need it most?

[Bowen Yang]

Because Xfinity WI fi can. And what if your WI fi could fix itself before there's even really a problem? Xfinity is so reliable. It does that, too.

[Matt Rogers]

What if your WI fi had parental instincts? Xfinity WI Fi is part nanny, part ninja, protecting your kids while they're online.

[Bowen Yang]

And finally, what if your wifi was, like, the smartest WI fi?

[Matt Rogers]

Yeah, it's WI Fi that is so smart, it makes everything work better together.

[Bowen Yang]

Bottom line, Xfinity is smart and reliable. You deserve the peace of mind of having WI fi that's got your back.

[Matt Rogers]

Xfinity. Imagine that.

[Angela Yee]

This is Angela Yee from Way up with Angela Yee, y'. All Black Girl Vitamins is completely changing the wellness game for us. You know, our bodies don't move the same as we get older and health becomes even more important. BGV Black Girl Vitamins is giving us all the supplements we need to stay healthy. I've seen hundreds of ladies online raving about their tasteless collagen powder that made their joint pain practically disappear. I had to try it myself. And y', all, it is the truth. I if your body needs help bouncing back, go ahead and check their products out on BlackGirlVitamins Co and get 20% off using code Angela Yee.

[Bowen Yang]

Well, the holidays have come and gone once again. But if you've forgotten to get that special someone in your life a gift, well, Mint Mobile is extending their holiday offer of half off unlimited wireless. So here's the idea. You get it now, you call it an early present for next year. What do you have to lose? Give it a [e-mail] switch limited time.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

50% off regular price for new customers. Upfront payment required. $45 for three months 99 DOL dollars for six month or $180 for 12 month plan taxes and fees.

[Jenna Kim Jones]

Extra speeds may slow after 50 gigabytes

[Tracy B. Wilson]

per month when network is busy See Terms

[Holly Fry]

welcome to Stuff you Missed in History Class, a production of iHeartradio.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Hello and welcome to the podcast. I'm Tracy B. Wilson.

[Holly Fry]

And I'm Holly Fry.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

At various points on the show, most recently in our episode on the rendition of Anthony Burns, we have talked about people liberating themselves from enslavement and escaping to Canada from the United States. Slavery was abolished in some parts of what's now Canada in the 1790s, and then it was abolished all across the British Empire that Canada was part of under the Slavery abolition Act of 1833. It has not come up as often, but we've also talked about people fleeing south to Mexico, where slavery was abolished in 1829, and that included people escaping from enslavement in Texas, which was part of Mexico in 1829 but was exempted from the decree abolishing slavery just a few months after it was issued. And of course, people did also escape to other US Citizens, states and territories, although they still faced the risk of re enslavement under the Fugitive slave Acts of 1793 and 1850. I am not sure, though, whether we have ever talked about the period in which people were escaping to Florida. At the time, Florida was Spanish territory and slavery had not been abolished there. And that's at the heart of today's episode about the first officially sanctioned settlement for free black people in what is now the United States that was known as Fort Mose, just outside of St. Augustine, Florida. In the 18th century, St. Augustine served

[Holly Fry]

as the capital of Spanish Florida, or La Florida, and it's the oldest continuously occupied city from the colonial era of the United States. Listen, if you grow up in Florida, you get told this all the time. Let me assure you it was established in 1565, or more than 40 years before the first permanent English settlement of Jamestown, Virginia. Jamestown and the British origins of the US do tend to get a lot more attention in US history classes than St Augustine and Spain do. And of course, both of those usually get more attention than the oldest continually occupied settlements established by indigenous peoples like Acoma, Pueblo and oraibi, which predate St. Augustine by centuries and are still occupied today.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Yeah, my original draft of this said that Jamestown and the British origins of the US Tend to get a lot more attention, unless maybe you live in Florida or in one of the other places that was Spanish territory before becoming British territory and then part of the United States. So Pedro Menendez de Aviles established the city of St. Augustine under a license from King Felipe II, who wanted to protect Spain's claims in the Americas from incursions by other European powers. This included French Huguenots, who established a settlement in what is now Florida in 1562, less than a month after arriving in Florida. Three years later, Pedro Menendez de Avillas led an expedition that killed nearly all of those French colonists.

[Holly Fry]

When Spanish forces were tasked with building things like forts and settlements in the Americas, it was typical for them to bring workers who were enslaved to the crown. The Spanish system of slavery also incorporated the idea of manumission. People might be freed as a reward, or enslavers might use the idea of earning freedom to try to control their workforce. Spanish law also recognized some limited rights and protections for enslaved people, including including the right to own property and earn money, which made it somewhat easier for people to purchase their own freedom than in societies where that was not the case.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Manumission was not guaranteed by any stretch of the imagination, and most Africans in Spanish societies were enslaved. There was also stigma associated with having been previously enslaved, and freed people's records usually made reference to that earlier enslavement from for the rest of their lives. But this did mean that Spain and its colonies had a somewhat larger population of free black people than some of the other slaveholding societies of this era. When Menendez de Avillas arrived in Florida, he had both enslaved and free Africans with him. That was something that was true in other Spanish colonies as well. By the end of the 16th century, more than 10% of the population of St. Augustine was black, and a significant number of those people were free.

[Holly Fry]

When the British started establishing their own colonies in the Americas, slavery became part of the conflict between England and Spain. So for context, Spain had claimed all of the Americas after the voyages of Christopher Columbus. At the end of the 15th century, other European powers mostly disregarded those claims, and they started claiming territory and establishing colonies of their own. Most relevant to today's episode. In 1663, England established the province of Carolina under a royal charter. Its southern border was close to the border between Florida and Georgia today. A second charter in 1665 set the Carolina border even farther south, with England claiming more of Florida, including St. Augustine. Disputes over this territory escalated after English colonists established Charlestown, that is now Charleston, South Carolina, in 1670.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Spain had made some attempts to colonize Florida, but those attempts had not been very successful, and Spanish Authorities knew that if they lost St. Augustine, they would lose the whole peninsula. So they established forts and they raised militias to try to defend this territory. This included militias specifically for black, indigenous and multiracial people. And this is something else that was really typical across the Spanish colonies and some other colonies. There just weren't enough Europeans to defend all of the claims in the Americas without help from other people. So typically there were fighting forces of the European colonists as well as enslaved and free black people. Enslaved saved indigenous people and indigenous allies.

[Holly Fry]

The establishment of the first free black settlement in the United States grew out of the conflict between England and Spain and the fact that the idea of manumission was already part of the Spanish institution of slavery. In 1687, eight men, two women and a three year old girl arrived in St. Augustine by canoe after liberating themselves from enslavement in the province of Carolina. It's possible that they were not the first people to flee to Florida from Carolina and that earlier arrivals just were not documented. It is also possible that other people had tried to make it through the swampy landscapes between England's settlements and St. Augustine and just had not survived. And it's likely that these 11 people had the help of indigenous people as they traveled through this territory along the coast to get there.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

With the exception of the three year old, probably these were people who had been enslaved in Africa and transported to North America. At this point, slave traders were transporting people to Carolina, mainly from parts of central and western Africa where Portuguese merchants had been operating since the 1400s. So it's possible that at least some of these people were familiar with Catholicism as a religion. Some of them may have spoken Portuguese, which would have helped them communicate with the Spanish authorities in St. Augustine. It's even possible that they might have known about laws and customs that would afford them some protection if they asked for religious sanctuary and about the possibility of manumission, which Portugal and Spain treated fairly. Similarly, we really have no way of knowing any of this for sure, but according to Spanish accounts, after arriving in St. Augustine, these refugees asked to be baptized into the true faith, that being Catholicism.

[Holly Fry]

After being baptized and after Catholic marriage ceremonies were provided for the couples, six of the men were put to work helping to build the Castillo de San Marcos, that is a masonry fort that was built to protect St. Augustine from both English forces and from pirates. The other two men worked for a blacksmith, suggesting that they were probably already experienced in that trade. The women did domestic work in the governor's house. All of these adults were paid for their labor a peso per day for the men and half a peso per day for the women. They were housed with various residents of St. Augustine.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

In 1688, James Culleton, governor of Carolina, dispatched Major William Dunlop on a diplomatic mission to St. Augustine. Among other things, he was instructed to demand the return of the people who had escaped to St. Augustine the year before who Collatin claimed had been stolen in a Spanish raid on Edisto Island.

[Holly Fry]

Diego de Quiroga y Lozada, acting governor of Spanish Florida, refused to return them, citing that they had all been baptized into the Catholic faith and were now employed in St. Augustine and that some of them had married local people. He did, however, offer monetary restitution to be paid to their former enslavers. One man named Mingo was also accused of having committed murder during the escape. Quiroga Ilosada told Dunlop that if there was evidence of this murder and if Mingo was prosecuted and convicted, that he would be executed for that crime.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Kiroga Ilosada also assured Dunlop that if other enslaved people escaped from Carolina to Florida in the future, they would be, quote from time to time, faithfully restored in their own proper persons to the Governor of Carolina or any sent by him. But that is not what happened. We'll have more after a sponsor break.

[Matt Rogers]

This is Matt Rogers from Las Culturistas with Matt Rogers and Bowen Yang.

[Bowen Yang]

This is Bowen Yang from Las Culturistas with Matt Rogers and Bowen Yang. What if your wifi was more than just wifi? What if your WI fi made everything in your whole house just work together better?

[Matt Rogers]

Well, Xfinity WI Fi pretty much does exactly that. It's powered by their best, most elite high performing tech.

[Bowen Yang]

Allow us to paint a very realistic example. Everyone in your house, everyone is on their devices at the exact same time. Gaming, working, swiping.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Right?

[Bowen Yang]

Because of course they are. And the finale of your favorite show of all time of the week is on at the exact same moment. Well, you can boost the WI fi to your device with Xfinity.

[Matt Rogers]

And have you ever asked yourself, what if my WI fi could keep watch over my kids for me? Well, probably not, because that's a weird thing to ask yourself. But Xfinity WI fi has parenting skills, even if you sometimes forget yours. Xfinity's like, don't worry, I'll monitor the WI fi.

[Bowen Yang]

It's completely proactive, fixing issues before they even happen. Bottom line, Xfinity is smart and reliable. You deserve the peace of mind of having WI fi that's got your back Xfinity.

[Matt Rogers]

Imagine that.

[Jenna Kim Jones]

Breaking news everybody. Not everything is terrible. I repeat, not everything is terrible. The Ripple Effect with Jenna Kim Jones is proof that the Internet it hasn't ruined humanity entirely.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Clean the world. We have almost 10,000 hotels that operate our soap and plastic recycling program and we have created and distributed 90 million free bars of soap to children, families, mothers in 127 countries across the globe.

[Jenna Kim Jones]

It's like magic you guys. So put down your doom scroller and pick up your faith in humanity and join me, Jenna for the Ripple effect. It's a reminder that you can start a ripple that changes everything. You really can.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Best stat of all is that the death rate to children under the age of five dying to hygiene related illnesses has decreased by more than 60% since the day we started.

[Jenna Kim Jones]

Listen to the Ripple Effect with Jenna Kim Jones on the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts or wherever you get your podcasts.

[Angela Yee]

This is Angela Yee from Way up with Angela Yee. Y', all, Black Girl Vitamins is completely changing the wellness game for us. You know our bodies don't move the same as we get older and health becomes even more important. BGV Black Girl Vitamins is giving us all the supplements we need to stay healthy. I've seen hundreds of ladies online raving about their tasteless collagen powder and that made their joint pain practically disappear. I had to try it myself. And y', all, it is the truth. If your body needs help bouncing back, go ahead and check their products out on BlackGirlVitamins Co and get 20% off using code.

[Commercial Announcer]

Angela Yee Owning a home is full of surprises. Some wonderful, some not so much. And when something breaks, it can feel like the whole day unravels. That's why HomeServe exists for as little as $4.99 a month. You'll always have someone to call a trusted professional ready to help. Bringing peace of mind to four and a half million homeowners nationwide. For plans starting at just $499 a month, go to homeserve.com that's homeserve.com not available everywhere. Most plans range between $4.99 to $11.99 a month. Your first year terms apply on covered repairs.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

It did not take long for word to spread around the province of Carolina that a group of people had escaped to St. Augustine and the Spanish governor had refused to return them. Soon more people started liberating themselves and fleeing to the South. This was enough of an issue that within a year of William Dunlop's negotiations with the Spanish, the lord's proprietors of carolina, which held joint ownership of the carolina colony, Told governor James collatin that he needed to put a stop to it.

[Holly Fry]

For the next few years, there wasn't an official policy in spanish Florida about what to do when africans arrived seeking refuge. Decisions were at the discretion of whoever was acting as governor. But a general practice did evolve. People who agreed to be baptized as catholics, Swear their allegiance to spain, and work for the colony Were treated as free.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Eventually, after authorities from spanish Florida Made several requests for some more specific guidance from the crown, the council of the indies recommended formalizing what the governors had most of the time already been doing on their own. In 1693, King Carlos II of Spain Issued a decree that liberty would be given to anyone who arrived in spanish Florida and accepted catholicism. A similar edict had done the same in the spanish Caribbean A little more than a decade before this.

[Holly Fry]

The reason Carlos gave for this was, quote, so that by their example and by my liberality, Others will do the same. But he was not in any way advocating for abolition, and his motivations Were more pragmatic than humanitarian. If spanish Florida accepted refugees from the province of carolina, those people could bolster the size of the spanish militia. They often brought skills and knowledge from work that they had been forced to do while enslaved, which could benefit the spanish. And if enslaved people knew there was a possible haven in the south where they could be free, it could encourage more people to liberate themselves, which could destabilize England's colonial efforts.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Yeah, they might also have specialized skills and knowledge from before they were enslaved. Regardless, though, like, he made that sound like it was really out of the goodness of his own heart and to set a good example for the rest of the world. And.

[Holly Fry]

But it was because they were assets.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Yeah, they were assets. And he understood that they could have an effect if enough people left carolina. So over the span of about 50 years, more than a hundred people are known to have successfully made their way from the British colonies to St. Augustine, where they were granted asylum and freedom in exchange for conversion to catholicism and allegiance to Spain. In 1738, their population had reached a size that Spanish authorities decided to establish gracia real de santa teresa de mose, Just north of the city, Also known as fort mose. This was the first officially sanctioned free black settlement in north america.

[Holly Fry]

This was, of course, a segregation effort, and one of its motivations Was straightforward racial prejudice. Also, since slavery was legal in St. Augustine, there were enslaved people living there, and enslaved people who tried to escape from there. So officials thought it was prudent to have the free black population just live somewhere else. And it was also an attempt to establish another line of defense between the colonial capital and British territory.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

We just described it as a free black settlement, which it was. But Fort Mose also became a multiracial and multicultural settlement. Its African residents came from at least four different ethnic groups. In addition to the freed people, there were also enslaved Africans, indigenous people, and Europeans who married into the community and their multiracial children. Fort Mose was also assigned a Spanish administrator who does not appear to have actually lived there, and a Franciscan student priest who did.

[Holly Fry]

Captain Francisco Menendez was tasked with leading the militia that was stationed at Fort Mose. And in many other ways, he was seen as a leader in the community. So we're going to back up a little bit and talk about his backstory. He was Mandinga, that's a Mande speaking ethnic group from West Africa. He was probably born somewhere in the Gambia river region, and the Mandinga in that area are predominantly Muslim. We don't know exactly when he was born or what his original name was. The name Francisco Menendez came from someone who enslaved him after he was in North America.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

The province of Carolina was officially separated into the colonies of north and South Carolina in 1712, and Menendez was enslaved in South Carolina by 1715. Prior to that, the timeline was a little vague. That year, 1715, the Yamasi people and their allies, including the Creek and Catawba nations, as well as enslaved Africans, went to war against the English colonists. This followed years of exploitation by white traders, including forcing indigenous people into debt through unfair trading practices and then enslaving them over non payment of that debt. Another factor in this war was the ongoing encroachment of the English onto indigenous lands.

[Holly Fry]

The colonists faced huge casualties in this war and were vastly outnumbered by an alliance of indigenous peoples from all over the Carolinas. Eventually, this alliance had Charlestown almost entirely surrounded by land. The tide only turned after reinforcements arrived from Virginia and North Carolina, along with supplies from New England. And the Cherokee, who had initially remained neutral, joined the colonists side. After that, many of the indigenous and African combatants fled south to Florida. This included Menendez and his wife, known as Ana Maria de Escobar. She was also Mendinga, and the name we know her by today also came from an enslaver.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Based on that 1693 decree from King Carlos II. Menendez and his wife and the other Africans who arrived in Spanish territory after the Yamasi war should have been considered free. But during their retreat to the South, a Yamasi man known as Pero Bravo turned on them and declared that about 30 Africans in the group were his slaves. He sold them to the acting governor of Florida, who then sold them to Francisco Menendez Marquez, which is where Francisco Menendez got his name.

[Holly Fry]

Francisco Menendez made repeated petitions for his own freedom along with that of his wife and the other people who had escaped with him. This included petitions that were written and signed in Spanish, with the whole document in the same handwriting, which suggests that he wrote it himself and that he had become literate in Spanish while still enslaved. He was made commander of a militia for freed people.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

In 1733, King Felipe V of Spain issued an edict forbidding compensation to the British for the loss of enslaved people who escaped to Florida. He also reiterated the policy of offering freedom to people who escaped to Spanish Florida. Not long after that, he modified that earlier edict, saying that people would have to serve the crown for four years before being freed. So at this point, Menendez, his wife, and the other people who had escaped with them had all been enslaved since 1718, and Menendez's enslaver was a royal accountant. So even if that stipulation of four years of service to the crown, which had not existed before, had suddenly been applied to him, he would have met that criteria already, but he and the others were still considered enslaved.

[Holly Fry]

Finally, in 1738, a Yamasi chief known as Jorge advocated for Menendez, citing his actions during the war against the British and describing Pero Bravo as a heathen who did not know any better when he enslaved them. Jorge also argued that the Spanish, on the other hand, should have known better than to purchase Menendez and his compatriots from perro bravo. On March 15, 1738, Governor Manuel de Monteado finally granted unconditional freedom to everyone who had escaped from South Carolina, even though they really should have been free this whole time under existing royal decrees. The people who had purportedly bought them were very annoyed about this loss of their free labor. Francisco Menendez was finally free, and he became captain of the militia at Fort Mose.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Fort Mose defended St. Augustine against attacks from the north. In September of 1739. It was also probably the planned destination of enslaved people who rose up in the Stono river area south of Charleston. The Stono Rebellion was one of the largest slave insurrections in US history in which between 20 and 30 white people and between 30 and 50 Africans were killed. This rebellion led South Carolina to pass new laws restricting the lives and the movements of enslaved people. And it probably inspired later uprisings in South Carolina and Georgia, which had also been separated out from South Carolina in 1732.

[Holly Fry]

Fort Mose was also part of the defense of St. Augustine during a war between England and Spain. We're going to talk about that after we pause for another sponsor break.

[Matt Rogers]

This is Matt Rogers from Las Culturistas with Matt Rogers and Bowen Yang.

[Bowen Yang]

This is Bowen Yang from Las Culturistas with Matt Rogers and Bowen Yang. What if your WI fi was more than just WI fi? What if your WI fi made everything in your whole house just work together better?

[Matt Rogers]

Well, Xfinity WI Fi pretty much does exactly that. It's powered by elite high performing tech.

[Bowen Yang]

Allow us to paint a very realistic example. Everyone in your house, everyone is on their devices at the exact same time. Gaming, working, swiping. Right? Because of course they are. And the finale of your favorite show of all time of the week is on at the exact same moment. Well, you can boost the WI fi to your device with Xfinity.

[Matt Rogers]

And have you ever asked yourself, what if my WI fi could keep watch over my kids for me? Well, probably not, because that's a weird thing to ask yourself, but Xfinity WI fi has parenting skills, even if you sometimes forget yours. Xfinity's like, don't worry, I'll monitor the WiFi.

[Bowen Yang]

It's completely proactive, fixing issues before they even happen. Bottom line, Xfinity is smart and reliable. You deserve the peace of mind of having wifi that's got your back.

[Matt Rogers]

Xfinity. Imagine that.

[Jenna Kim Jones]

Breaking news, everybody. Not everything is terrible. I repeat, not everything is terrible. The Ripple Effect with Jenna Kim Jones. Proof that the Internet, it hasn't ruined humanity entirely. Author and member of the church, Dave Butler looked at what had happened and realized that there were other victims in this tragedy and did something completely unexpected. He set up a fundraiser for the family of the shooter, who had left behind a wife and a child.

[Holly Fry]

I think what people recognized is that

[Tracy B. Wilson]

the 10 year old son of the

[Commercial Announcer]

shooter is also a victim. The widow is also a victim. So it is 9,500 people and a lot of them are giving $5, $10, $20.

[Jenna Kim Jones]

It's like magic, you guys. So put down your doom scroller and pick up your faith in humanity and join me, Jenna, for the Ripple Effect. It's a reminder that you can start a ripple that changes everything. You really can. Listen to the Ripple Effect with Jenna Kim Jones on the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts or wherever you get your podcasts.

[Angela Yee]

This is Angela Yee from Way up with Angela Yee y'. All, Black Girl Vitamins is completely changing the wellness game for us. You know our bodies don't move the same as we get older and health becomes even more important. BGV Black Girl Vitamins is giving us all the supplements we need to stay healthy. I've seen hundreds of ladies online raving about their tasteless collagen powder that made their joint pain practically disappear. I had to try it myself and y', all, it is the truth. If your body needs help bouncing back, go ahead and check their products out on BlackGirlVitamins Co and get 20% off using code Angela Yee brought to you

[Tracy B. Wilson]

in part by Vital Farms One of my very favorite easy meals to make is to fry up an egg in some chili oil, throw that over rice, maybe wilt a little spinach and garlic so I have some greens in there. Delicious salt so fast, so easy. You can make it with Vital Farms Pasture Raised Eggs. These hens have access to open pastures, fresh air and sunshine and you can actually trace your eggs back to the farm that they came from. There's a little thing on the side of the carton. You can find the farm name and look it up. See pictures plus Vital Farms is a certified bee corporation which I always appreciate. That means they are committed to improving the lives of people, animals and the planet through food. So farmers who care hens that get to roam and eggs that you can feel good. Next time you are in the store, look for the black carton in the egg aisle and visit vitalfarms.com to learn more. Vital Good Eggs no Shortcuts. In 1739, England and Spain went to war in what came to be known as the War of Jenkins. Here ear that moniker traces back to 1731 when the British ship Rebecca was stopped and boarded by a Spanish Coast Guard ship under the command of Captain Juan de Leon Fandinho. According to the Rebecca's Captain Robert Jenkins, in the process of pillaging the ship and setting everybody aboard adrift, the Spanish had cut off his ear. Jenkins reported this to the House of Commons in 1738 and showed them the ear which he had preserved and kept.

[Holly Fry]

This became a pretext for a war with Spain, but there were other tensions that fed into it, including issues that were connected to slavery. In 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht that ended the War of the Spanish Succession had given the British South Sea Company a license to sell enslaved Africans in Spanish America and to send one trading ship to Spanish America each year. But a whole lot of illicit trade operated under the COVID of these authorized voyages, and the legitimate ones also became their own source of conflict. In the context of the ongoing border disputes in Florida, the war of Jenkins

[Tracy B. Wilson]

ear gave James Oglethorpe, governor of Georgia territory, his own pretext to invade Florida. This point in the episode is where just Florida becomes a battleground for a long time. A lot of things happen. Oglethorpe's forces raided forts along the coast of Florida and the St. Johns river, and In May of 1740, they lay siege to St. Augustine and established a naval blockade. Some of Oglethorpe's indigenous allies killed some of the defenders at Fort Moses, and its black militia and civilian residents were evacuated to Castillo de San Marcos in St. Augustine. Before they left, they destroyed the fort's gates and made holes in its fortifications so that the British could not use the fort for their own defense.

[Holly Fry]

While the fort was no longer well fortified or secure, the British force, which included black troops, indigenous allies, and units of Scottish highlanders, decided to use it as a camp. And before dawn on June 26, the free black militia, under the command of Francisco Menendez, regular Spanish army troops, and Seminole allies, launched a surprise attack to retake it. More than half of the 170 British occupiers and their allies were either killed or captured, while only 10 people were killed and 20 wounded on the Spanish side, and this battle was nicknamed Bloody Mose.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

After this defeat, the British withdrew their naval blockade of St. Augustine, and not long after that, Spanish reinforcements arrived from Cuba. Oglethorpe's forces ultimately retreated back to Georgia.

[Holly Fry]

Since fort Mose had been almost entirely destroyed, Its former residence remained in St. Augustine, and that's where most of them lived for the next decade. That was true of Francisco Menendez's wife and children, but he felt that he had earned an officer's salary. He joined a corsair ship, hoping to make his way to Spain to make his case before the king. But in 1741, the ship he was on was captured by the British, who figured out who he was, tortured him, re enslaved him, and sent him to the Bahamas. The details are not documented anywhere, but somehow he escaped again, and he made his way back to St. Augustine and rejoined his family.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

In 1752, Florida Governor Fulgencio Garcia de Solis decided to rebuild Fort Mose and return the free black militia to it. This was not something that most of those men wanted to do. We have not really spelled this out, But Spain's offer of freedom came with a lot of conditions. People who escaped to Florida were not considered enslaved anymore, but for men, that militia service was mandatory. The fort was also remote and swampy. Its housing was austere. The population was a fraction of St. Augustine, so there were not nearly as many opportunities for things like social lives and education. This forced relocation was also obviously an effort to once again remove the free black population out of St. Augustine. Because of their race, ultimately, they didn't

[Holly Fry]

really have a choice. Fort Mose was rebuilt, and by 1759, it was home to 37 men, 15 women, and 15 children. Seven of those children were boys and eight were girls. The fort also had a wooden church where everyone worshiped and where a priest lived. As had been true of its earlier iteration, the second fort's residence came from multiple African ethnic groups, as well as European and indigenous people who married one of the fort's African residents. It's likely that even though its population was small, the community at the fort was multilingual, with English, Spanish, Arabic, and different indigenous languages from Africa and North America all being spoken there.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

This rebuilt fort continued to serve as an outer line of defense for the city of St. Augustine. In 1762, as this region became involved in the French and Indian War, an earthwork fortification was built from one corner of the fort, extending west southwest for about three quarters of a mile.

[Holly Fry]

The French and Indian War is the name of the North American component of the Nine Years War between France and the United Kingdom, which was also connected with the Seven Years War, which involved pretty much all of Europe. Everybody gets to name their part their own thing, and it makes it very confusing for the rest of us. This war ended with the Treaty of Paris of 1763, and under that treaty, Spain ceded all of Florida to England in exchange for Cuba, which England had occupied the year before. England divided Florida into the two colonies of east and West Florida, which set the stage for later disputes over control of those two parts, which we are not going to even try to get into here. Spain evacuated its population from Florida, including relocating the free black population of Fort Mose to Cuba.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Yeah, Even though there were two colonies of east and West Florida, and sometimes things applied to one of them and not the other. We're just going to continue to talk about all of it as Florida for the most part, because it became a lot to try to explain every nuance of it. Francisco Menendez and his family and about 50 other people were all relocated aboard a schooner called Our lady of Sorrows in August of 1763. Each family was granted some land and given supplies and an enslaved person to help them establish a homestead. This land was in what was thought of as the frontier around Matanzas, about 60 miles or 100 kilometers east of Havana. But it was rocky, not very good for farming, and most of them eventually returned to the area more directly around Havana. From there, these folks mostly disappear from the historical record.

[Holly Fry]

The United States, of course, declared its independence From England in 1776 during the Revolutionary War. That war ended with the Treaty of Paris of 1783, which returned Florida to Spain. It is possible that some of Fort Mose's former residents or their descendants went back to St. Augustine after this, but there's no documentation, so we really don't know.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Yeah, it's possible that there are records somewhere that someone could unearth and pick through, but not in what's available right now. After retaking control of Florida, Spain continued to have a policy of treating people who escaped to Spanish territory as free. That ended on May 17, 1790, when King Carlos IV issued a decree abolishing all those earlier orders regarding the treatment of escaped slaves. At that point, the United States Constitution had come into effect, and Thomas Jefferson had become the first secretary of state. This decree followed negotiations between Spain and the United States, with the US Trying to get Spain to put a stop to this practice. Of course, this was also interconnected with, like the United States getting on its own footing as a newly established nation.

[Holly Fry]

People still fled to Florida, though, But instead of trying to get to Spanish territory, they tried to take refuge in Seminole territory. So the name Seminole came into use in the late 18th century for indigenous people who were already living in the southeast and fled to this porcelain part of Florida. In the face of violence from British colonists and other indigenous nations, the Spanish granted some of these people land with the hope of maintaining a buffer between its settlements and the border with the United States. Black Seminoles eventually became their own distinct

[Tracy B. Wilson]

ethnic group in 1812, in the face of rising tensions between the United States and the United Kingdom would, of course, be eventually the War of 1812. U.S. officials intentionally stoked fears of what would happen if Spain lost control of east Florida, Leaving it vulnerable to a British attack and occupation. In response, the US Attacked parts of northern Florida with the goal of claiming it for the United States. Some of the forces involved with this on the American side were US Military and militias from Georgia and Tennessee, and they were at least tacitly supported by president James Monroe. But there was also a group calling themselves the Patriot army, who were civilians who were basically acting on their own, like the the Government had intentionally stoked people's fears about this. The military involvement, kind of like on the edge of official. The Patriot army just doing their thing,

[Holly Fry]

just doing it vigilante style. These combined US Forces fought against the Spanish and against the Seminole. And this conflict, known as the Patriot War, can be seen as a precursor to the Seminole wars that started in 1816. During the Patriot War, some of the American forces who invaded Florida occupied Fort Mose. They were defeated, and in the process, what was left of that fort was destroyed.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

The United States once again gained control of Florida under the Onis Adams Treaty of 1819, in which the United States got Florida in exchange for taking responsibility for about $5 million in American damage claims against Spain. Tracing back to the Seminole wars that we mentioned a moment ago. And then, of course, Florida became a US state in 1845.

[Holly Fry]

The ruins of the second Fort Mose were eventually overtaken by swamp, while the site of the original fort was flooded due to dredging operations in the late 19th century. The site of the second fort was discovered in the 1960s by Frederick Eugene Williams III. It was on land owned by the St. Augustine Historical Society, which Williams purchased in 1968. It became a state park, and a series of archaeological projects were undertaken there Starting in the 1980s, work done by Dr. Kathleen Deegan of the Florida Museum of Natural History. The story of this rediscovery, the archaeological work, and the creation of the park is quite long, and it's complicated. As many such stories. It's a bit messy. And it's chronicled in an article in Bitter Southerner called the First Floridians, which was written by Jordan Blumetti.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Fort Mose was named a National historic landmark in 1995, and it is now part of Florida's Black Heritage Trail. A recreation of the 1738 fort was built there just last year. Surrounded by a historically accurate moat, this reproduction was made to meet modern building and fire codes, while also appearing as historically accurate as possible. The park also hosts reenactors for militia musters and a recreation of the Bloody Mose battle every year. The next bloody mosaic reenactment is scheduled for June 27, 2026.

[Holly Fry]

The Gullah Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor was established by an act of Congress in 2006. The Gullah Geechee are descendants of people who were enslaved in Western and Central Africa and brought to the coasts of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, where they develop their own distinct culture and traditions. Fort Mose is part of the Gullah Geechee corridor, and this corridor has also been documented as a primary route for people who escaped to St. Augustine and Fort Mose.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

So that is Fort Mose.

[Holly Fry]

Do you have listener mail for us?

[Tracy B. Wilson]

I do. I have such incredibly short listener mail, but it's so cute.

[Holly Fry]

Great. It just says hi and it's a kitty. And we're out almost.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

This is from Jennifer. Jennifer says hello. Holly Fry and Tracy B. Wilson. I giggled when I saw the podcast on Rickets come up in my feed. This is Rickets. What follows is a picture of a black kitty cat on an animal print blanket. Behind this kitty cat is a zebra print pillow and like a dark burgundy pair of pillows. The look on this cat's face to me is like, I'm lonely and I'm thinking about my friend and I want my friend to come over here. But this animal print fuzzy blanket that I'm on is so comfortable that I also don't want to get up to go look for my friend. But I'm lonely. So the email goes on to say,

[Holly Fry]

I like how you built an emotionally complicated backstory for this cat.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

I mean, black cats can be very expressive in their facial expressions. So the email goes on to say, I adopted Ricketts Ricky to be a companion to my other cat, Scurvy. I considered writing illustrated children's books about their adventures. That's all I needed to say, exclamation point. Jennifer and I wanted to read this email to say I want some children's books about two cats named Rickets and Scurvy and their adventures. I would be very into this and I love that these kitty cats are named Rickets and Scurvy. I think that's great. And then we love black cats in this household and podcast. So all of these things together. I said, I want to read that. Thank you so much for this picture and for giving such great names to these cats and for having the idea of illustrated children's books about Ricky. Also Ricketts and Scurvy. If you would like to write us, we are at history [e-mail] if you want to read the source lists for all of our episodes, that is at the website missinhistory.com and if you want to subscribe to our show, you can do so on the iHeartRadio app or anywhere else you like to get your podcasts. Stuff youf Missed in History Class is a production of iHeartRadio. For more podcasts from iHeartRadio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you listen to your favorite show. T Mobile has the best plan on the Best network.

[Commercial Announcer]

Just ask Kevin Bacon.

[Bowen Yang]

Today, business happens virtually everywhere.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

That's why you need Super Mobile from T Mobile the best plan on the

[Bowen Yang]

Best network letting you run your business from your phone like never before.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

In moments of high demand, T Mobile's network adapts to put your business connection first.

[Commercial Announcer]

Discover [e-mail] best business plan based on

[Tracy B. Wilson]

combination of advanced network performance, coverage layers and security features. Best Network based on analysis by ooglip's speed test intelligence data 1 inch 2025 oogle trademarks user license and reprinted with

[Commercial Announcer]

permission if you're the purchasing manager at a manufacturing plant, you know having a trusted partner makes all the difference. That's why, hands down, you count on Grainger for auto reordering. With on time restocks, your team will have the cut resistant gloves they need at the start of their shift and you can end your day knowing they've got safety but in hand. Call 1-800-granger. Click granger.com or just stop by Granger for the ones who get it done.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

Brought to you in part by Vital Farms I love eggs. I turn to them all the time as a quick and easy way to start a meal. And Vital Farms eggs are brought to you by hens that have access to fresh air and sunshine, and you can actually look up on the carton and see the farm that those eggs came from. Vital Farms is also a certified bee corporation with a purpose the lives of people, animals and the planet through food. Look for the black egg carton in the egg aisle and visit vitalfarms.com to learn more. Vital Good Eggs no shortcuts.

[Commercial Announcer]

You know that feeling when a story just grabs you and won't let go? That's the kind of drama that's waiting for you on Disney. Hulu Mysterious post apocalyptic thrillers like the acclaimed Hulu original Paradise, action adventure dragon dramas like Daredevil, Born Again and iconic medical dramas like Grey's Anatomy. Or maybe you want your drama with a side of comic relief with shows like High Potential. Find the drama you want on Disney and Hulu with a bundle. Subscription terms apply.

[Tracy B. Wilson]

This is an Iheart podcast. Guaranteed human.