Episode Summary: "Centum, Satem and the Letter C"
Podcast Title: The History of English Podcast
Host: Kevin Stroud
Episode: 5 – Centum, Satem and the Letter C
Release Date: July 18, 2012
Introduction to Sound Changes in Indo-European Languages
In Episode 5, host Kevin Stroud delves into the intricate history of the English letter C, exploring its dual pronunciation and historical roots. The episode builds upon the previous discussion about Jacob Grimm and early linguists' efforts to reconstruct ancient Indo-European languages through specific sound changes.
“Some of the very same sound shifts that were identified within the original Indo-European language are still reflected in certain aspects of modern English.”
— Kevin Stroud [01:15]
The Centum-Satem Division
Stroud introduces the Centum-Satem classification, a pivotal concept in understanding the evolution of Indo-European languages. This division is based on the differing pronunciations of the word for "hundred" across various Indo-European branches.
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Centum Languages (Western): Languages like Latin, Greek, Celtic, and Germanic retained the k sound.
“In Latin, the word for hundred was 'kentum', spelled C E N T U M.”
— Kevin Stroud [06:45] -
Satem Languages (Eastern): Languages such as Sanskrit, Persian, and Slavic shifted the initial k sound to an s sound.
“In Sanskrit, the word was 'satem', spelled S A T E M.”
— Kevin Stroud [06:55]
Stroud explains how this phonetic split suggested an early migration and division among the original Indo-European speakers, with Centum languages situated in the West and Satem languages in the East.
Introduction to Assibilation
A significant portion of the episode focuses on assibilation, a sound change where non-sibilant sounds gradually become sibilants like s or z.
“Assibilation basically refers to a shift from one sound to a sibilant, which is a hissing or hushing sound.”
— Kevin Stroud [09:30]
Stroud illustrates this concept with examples from English, such as the transformation of Latin -tio to the -tion pronounced as -shun in words like revolution and abolition.
The Evolution of the Letter C
The heart of the episode unravels the complex history of the letter C, tracing its origins from Greek to Latin, and eventually into English.
From Greek to Roman Influence
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Greek Origin: The third letter, Gamma (Γ), represented the G sound.
“The Greeks represented that third letter gamma, with a symbol that looked like an upside down capital L.”
— Kevin Stroud [16:20] -
Roman Adaptation: When Romans adopted the Greek alphabet via the Etruscans, Gamma evolved into C, adopting the k sound. The letter G was subsequently introduced by modifying C.
“The Romans created a new letter to represent the G sound, which became our modern letter G.”
— Kevin Stroud [19:00]
Germanic Languages and Old English
As the Roman Empire declined, Germanic tribes, including the Anglo-Saxons, adopted the Roman alphabet. In Old English, C primarily represented the k sound.
“The Anglo Saxons didn't even bother with it [letter K], they just used the letter C.”
— Kevin Stroud [24:10]
However, post-Roman Empire, with the emergence of various dialects and increasing French influence, pronunciation rules for C became inconsistent, leading to its dual pronunciation as k and s.
Sound Shifts and Modern English Pronunciation
Stroud connects historical sound changes to contemporary English pronunciation, particularly the letter C before front vowels (E and I).
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Before Back Vowels (A, O, U): C retains the k sound as in cat, cot, cut.
“When the K sound appears before an A, o, or u in any words which were inherited from this period, the word is still spelled with its original c and it retains its original K sound.”
— Kevin Stroud [29:20] -
Before Front Vowels (E, I): C often shifts to an s sound, influenced by French assimilation, resulting in pronunciations like cent and circle.
“Words like circle and circus have two Cs. One that represents the S sound and one that represents the K sound.”
— Kevin Stroud [03:45]
Stroud explains that to resolve pronunciation ambiguities in Middle English, scribes adopted spelling conventions:
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Ch for Old English Assibilation: Words like church and child use the ch combination to indicate the ch sound derived from earlier k sounds.
“Middle English scribes assigned the letter combination 'ch' for that sound.”
— Kevin Stroud [34:50] -
C for French-Influenced S Sound: Words borrowed from French retained the c before e and i to denote the s sound.
“Since the French were pronouncing the C as an S sound before an E or an I, the Middle English scribes went along with that rule.”
— Kevin Stroud [35:30] -
K for Retaining the K Sound: To preserve the k sound before front vowels in native Old English words, the k was reintroduced.
“Middle English scribes resurrected the largely forgotten letter K from the dustbin.”
— Kevin Stroud [38:10]
Case Studies: Words Illustrating Sound Shifts
Stroud provides concrete examples to illustrate how these sound shifts impacted English vocabulary:
- "Rich" and "Church":
- Old English rice pronounced richa → Modern English rich
- Old English cirice pronounced chorica → Modern English church
“With that assibilation, we also have an Old English or Anglo Saxon word spelled cild... evolved to 'child.'”
— Kevin Stroud [31:15]
- "Child":
- Old English cild pronounced keeled → Modern English child
“The spelling of the word was changed to 'child' to reflect the pronunciation of the word.”
— Kevin Stroud [31:45]
- "King":
- Old English cyning pronounced kuning → Modern English king
“In Old English, the word remained 'cunhing' with the original k sound.”
— Kevin Stroud [32:30]
Influence of the Norman Conquest
The Norman Conquest of 1066 significantly influenced English pronunciation and spelling. French scribes introduced numerous words where C before e and i retained the s sound, complicating the existing sound rules.
“Many of those words came into English with the French s sound in place of the k sound before the e and the I.”
— Kevin Stroud [37:00]
This confluence of Old English and Norman French pronunciation led to the standardized spelling rules observed in Modern English.
Legacy of Sound Changes in Modern English
Stroud emphasizes that the historical sound shifts have left an enduring mark on modern English, particularly through the letter C. Understanding these changes illuminates why C can represent both k and s sounds, reflecting deep linguistic evolution.
“The real point of this discussion was to illustrate how common sound changes are and how common certain sound changes are among various languages.”
— Kevin Stroud [46:30]
Conclusion and Teaser for Next Episode
Stroud wraps up by highlighting the significance of sound changes in shaping the English language's history. He teases the next episode, which will focus on reconstructing the original Indo-European language and exploring the origins and migrations of its speakers.
“In our next episode, we're going to look at the reconstructed language itself... how those people spread around the world and specifically how they spread into Western Europe.”
— Kevin Stroud [49:00]
Key Takeaways
- Centum-Satem Division: A fundamental split in Indo-European languages based on the pronunciation of the word for "hundred."
- Assibilation: A critical sound change where k sounds shifted to s or similar sibilants before front vowels.
- Evolution of Letter C: Tracing C from Greek Gamma to Roman C, and its dual pronunciation in English due to historical sound shifts.
- Norman Influence: The Norman Conquest introduced French pronunciation rules, solidifying C's dual nature in English.
- Modern Implications: Current English spelling and pronunciation rules for C are deeply rooted in these ancient linguistic transformations.
This episode provides a comprehensive exploration of the letter C within the broader context of Indo-European linguistic history, revealing how ancient sound changes continue to influence modern English.