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The History of English Podcast
Episode 67: The Year That Changed English
01:06:18
In this episode, we look at the events of 1066 – one of the most important dates in the history of English. Of course, this was the year of the Norman Conquest and the beginning of the end of Old … Continue reading →
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- [00:10]
Kevin Stroud
Welcome to the History of English Podcast, a podcast about the history of the English language. This is episode 67, the year that Changed English. In this episode, we're going to look at the events of 1066, one of the most important dates in English history. And the history of English, of course. This was the year of the Norman Conquest and the beginning of the end of Old English. It was an incredibly active year. So much happened. And if the events had not unfolded in just the way they did, William's conquests would have probably failed, and English would be a completely different language today. So this time, we're going to explore how those events unfolded and how William the Bastard became known to history as William the Conqueror. But first, I have a few quick announcements to make before we begin. Since the last episode, several of you were kind enough to send me links to the new book by Paul Kingsnorth called the Wake, and I thought I should mention it to you if you're not familiar with it. The book was previously released in the UK and it's now been released in the us. It's a fictional novel set in England in the immediate aftermath of the Norman Conquest. So the setting is very timely given where we are in the overall story of English. But what makes this particular novel so interesting is that King's north actually attempts to render the original language of the Anglo Saxons. Of course, it isn't actually Old English because a modern audience wouldn't be able to read that. Instead, it's more of a modernized version of Old English that can be read and understood by a modern audience. So. So it combines Old English words and spellings with a more modern English grammar. And given the period of history covered by the novel and the way that it treats the language spoken at the time, I thought many of you might find it interesting and might want to check it out. So, again, the name of the book is the Wake, and the author is Paul Kingsnorth. And speaking of Old English, there's a brand new podcast out there called Learn Old English by Bob Kiley. Bob was kind enough to contact me and let me know that he was putting it together. And the first few episodes are up now. They're very good and they provide a much more technical insight to the language than I provide here. So, again, the name of the podcast is Learn Old English and it's available through itunes as well as most other podcast directories. Also, I've previously mentioned the fact that I'm working on a book version of the material presented in the podcast. It will actually include a lot of etymology and material not included in the earlier episodes, and it was originally my intention to prepare this book rather than release the transcripts of the individual episodes. However, the book seems to be taking forever, so I've decided to go ahead and put together the transcripts for those of you who want those. So I'm going to start putting those up in the next few days, probably next week. I have the first 25 episodes or so ready now, and I'll continue to update the list until they're all there. And I still plan on completing the book probably early next year, so I'll make a note of that when it's ready. So with that, I'm going to turn to the events of 1066, and in putting this episode together, I thought it might be helpful to have a map to illustrate the various places and events which I'm going to be discussing. So Lewis Henwood has once again been kind enough to prepare a map. Just go to episode67@historyofenglishpodcast.com and you can refer to the map there if you want to get a sense of where these events occurred. Okay, so let's turn to the big event, the Norman Conquest. It's the one event which I've mentioned in just about every episode of the podcast since I began, and it's almost impossible to discuss the development of the English language without making some reference to this historic event. As I've noted before, many scholars consider the Norman Conquest to be the most important and significant event in the overall development of the English language. It may seem strange that a battle could so fundamentally change a language, but it did. And if we want quick proof of that change, all we have to do is look at the words which we use for warfare. Since the Normans emerged victorious in battle today, we tend to use their words when we're discussing the military. Almost all of the common English words for warfare, military personnel, strategy and tactics, come from French. That includes words like war, warrior, battle, military, army, navy, soldier, troop, division, rank, private, captain, corporal, lieutenant, or lieutenant, infantry, cavalry, comrade, ally, enemy, invade, assail, advance, attack, defend, retreat, defeat, surrender, strategy, campaign, victory, and champion. And I'm sure there are many, many more. And they all came into English because William the Conqueror and his descendants gave us the language in which English warfare was conducted as after 1066. In fact, you actually have to work to find military terms which survived from the defeated Anglo Saxons. Most of those words actually relate to the equipment they used and which has continued to exist in some form even to this day. So The Anglo Saxons gave us words like sword, shield, axe, spear, helmet, bow, arrow, and weapon. But other than surviving tools and equipment, we generally have to look to the French for our military terms. And that's a good example of how the French conquerors changed the language of the Anglo Saxons. So as we turn to the conquest, let's pick up the story where we left off last time with the last illness and death of Edward the Confessor. Edward had become very sick late in the year 1065, and his condition got progressively worse. By late December, he was bedridden. As it turned out, his last illness coincided with the completion of his favorite project, the construction of Westminster Abbey, just upriver from London. Throughout his reign, Edward had supervised and overseen the construction of the church. And now, late in the year 1065, it was finally completed. The consecration and dedication of the church was set for December 28. But despite the fact that it had been his lifelong passion, Edward the Confessor was too ill to attend the dedication ceremony. Rumors of Edward's illness were probably widespread by this point, and his failure to attend the Westminster dedication confirmed to everyone that he was likely in his final days. Edward held on for another week. So as we enter the first week of January 1066, Edward was still the King of England. But that reign was coming to an end. In his final days, Edward was surrounded by a small handful of retainers and close associates. One of those associates was the man who had been the effective ruler of England over the prior decade, Harold Godwinson, the Earl of Wessex and the son of the late Earl Godwin. Godwin the father had been a rival of the king, but his son Harold generally ruled as an ally. It appears that Edward came to trust Harold over time. And now, as Edward lay dying, he designated Harold as his successor. On his deathbed, the king told Harold that he wanted to be buried at Westminster, and he committed the kingdom to Harold's protection. Early in the morning of January 5th, Edward finally passed away. What is so fascinating about the death of Edward is how quickly events moved afterwards. With Edward's death, he had to be buried, and a new king had to be chosen. Now, under normal circumstances, the selection of a new king might take a few days or a few weeks. But as it turned out, the Witan was always summoned at Christmas time, and given Edward's dire condition, they were still in town waiting for the inevitable. So as soon as Edward died, the Witan were gathered to select a new king, and they immediately selected Harold. On the day after Edward died, two major events occurred in the Morning, Edward was laid to rest at Westminster and in the afternoon Harold was crowned as the new king. The day of the burial and coronation was known as 12th Mass at the time because it was the 12th day after Christmas. So the Anglo Saxon chronicle records the King Anwar died or went forth on.
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Unknown
12Th Mass Eve Se Kjung Edward Vorthverde on 12th Mass Effen and he was.
- [09:13]
Kevin Stroud
Buried on 12th Mass Day An Hinemann.
- [09:17]
Unknown
Bibjrda on 12th Den Macedae in the.
- [09:20]
Kevin Stroud
Newly hallowed or consecrated church at Westminster.
- [09:24]
Unknown
Inenteren ivan halgodra chirchen on Westminster and.
- [09:30]
Kevin Stroud
Earl Harold succeeded to the Kingdom of England.
- [09:33]
Unknown
Un herot erle feng te angelandis cune rice.
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Kevin Stroud
So thanks to these rapidly moving events, England now had a new king before most of the country even knew the old king was dead. This fact is even more fascinating given that Harold had no blood claim to the throne. But the issue of the succession had been hanging over everyone's heads for over a decade. So by this point the Witan likely knew what they were going to do when Edward died. And that was choose Harold, the man who had effectively been ruling England for several years. I should note here that there was actually one other potential heir in Edward's family line, a grand nephew who was a descendant of Edmund Ironsides, who I mentioned in an earlier episode. His name was Edgar the Atheling, but he was never given any serious consideration. He was a small child who had actually been born and partially raised in the Hungarian royal court. By the time Edward the confessor died in 1066, the boy was about 13 years old, but he had no real support among the nobles or the Witan. Everyone knew that there would probably be many claims made to the throne, so a 13 year old boy was not a good option to defend the country. And the Witan was never strictly bound to the next of kin anyway. So for now, young Edgar the Atheling was disregarded. Sir Harold Godwinson became King Harold in January of 1066. But as he assumed the throne, he was surrounded by enemies, especially beyond the sea. There were three specific enemies out there on the horizon. So let's briefly consider each one, because each one plays a role in this story. Let's begin close to home with the Godwin family. As we know, the Godwin family had come to dominate English politics. Harold had emerged as king. He also had two other brothers who were earls in the south. And he had a brother named Tostig who became the Earl of Northumbria. But Tostig's position in the north was always a little awkward. The Godwins were based down in Wessex and so Tostig didn't really have a base of support in the North. On top of that, he proved to be a bad leader. He often ignored the Danish laws and customs which were still common in the region. He also imposed very high taxes and over time he made many enemies, and apparently he had several of those enemies murdered. He alienated so many people in the region that a full scale rebellion broke out in Northumbria. The Thanes and nobles demanded that Tostig be removed and replaced with an Earl from Mercia. When we last looked at Mercia the Earl, there was Leofrich, the husband of Lady Godiva. By this point, Leofrich and Godiva had both died and Mercia was being ruled by their grandson Edwin, who was in his late teens. He had a brother named Morcar who was also a teenager. And the Thanes and nobles of Northumbria demanded that Morcar be brought in to replace Tostig. Now, this rebellion against Tostig broke out in 1065, the year before Edward the Confessor died and Harold had been sent to the north to deal with the problem. Of course, Tostig was Harold's brother, so everyone just assumed that Harold would side with Tostig. But he didn't. Harold actually realized that his brother was largely at fault and Harold ended up supporting the rebels. So he had Tostig exiled and Morcar was allowed to take Tostig's place as the Earl of Northumbria. This is often cited as an example of Harold's fairness and his willingness to put the interest of the people on above those of his family. And while that may have been the case, there was also a more practical consideration at the time. Harold was positioning himself to succeed Edward. He knew that he had strong support in the south, but he needed the support of the north if he wanted the Witan to make him king. So by siding with the rebels, Harold helped to ensure that he had that support. And that left Leofrich and Godiva's grandsons as the Earls of Mercia and Northumbria. So Harald made allies in the north, but in the process, he had his brother Tostig exiled. And in 1066 Tostig was still in exile in Flanders and he was looking for revenge. So Tostig was the first potential threat beyond the sea. The next potential threat came from Scandinavia. I've alluded to this threat in earlier episodes, but let's examine it one more time, just so we have all the players on the table. The Scandinavian claim came from Norway, and it goes back to the time of Harthacnut. Remember him? You might remember that he was the son of Cnut and he was in charge of Denmark while his father was in England. And when Cnut died, Harthacnut was the presumed heir in England. But he was tied down in Denmark fighting the Norwegian King Magnus. They eventually settled their dispute with a truce in which they agreed that the survivor would inherit the kingdom of the one who died first. Well, that freed up Harth Canute to travel to England, where he became the king and then he died. So Magnus of Norway then claimed Denmark and England, but he never really pursued those claims to the English throne. When Magnus died a few years later, his half brother, Harald Hardrada inherited his kingdom. And Hardrada was one of the most well known and feared Viking warriors in all of Europe. But the people of Denmark didn't really want him as their king. So Hardrada got tied down in Denmark for about 15 years, trying to kill or overthrow the local leaders there. As a result, he also never really pursued his inherited claims to England. But in 1063, Hardrada finally made a truce with the Danes. So when Edward the Confessor died in England a couple of years later, Harald Hardrada was free to pursue his inherited claims, if he chose to do so. So Harald Hardrada was the second threat across the sea. The third threat across the sea was the obvious threat, William of Normandy. I discussed his claims to the throne in the last episode, so I won't repeat them here, but as we saw, William felt that he had been promised the throne by Edward and that Harold Godwinson had confronted, confirmed that promise by taking an oath to William. So as word spread that Edward the Confessor was terminally ill in England, William was probably planning a trip across the Channel to receive his new title. But that's not what happened. The news of Edward's death and Harold's coronation reached William very quickly. William was informed of both events at the same time, and needless to say, it was not the news he expected to hear. According to a Norman history written about a hundred years later, the news reached William while he was on a hunting trip. When he received the news, he was so angry that he couldn't speak. It was an era before buttons existed, so the history says that William just stood there in silence, tying and untying the fastenings on his cloak. He returned to his palace and sat down on a bench and pulled his cloak across his face. For years, William had let it be known around Normandy that he was Edward's heir, that he would one day be the King of England. Now he had been made a liar and made to look like a fool. I noted that the historical sources say that William tied and untied his cloak because buttons were not yet a fashion accessory. And I make that note because there's actually a linguistic connection between buttons and William's ultimate response to the news he received. The word button is in fact a French word, though it has Germanic and ultimately Indo European roots. The Indo European root word was bau, and it meant to push or strike. And a button was a fastener which you had to push through a small opening. So that root word produced the word button. And that same sense of pushing or striking something also produce the Old English word beat. So beat and button are cognate. And you might beat something with a bat from the same root. And if you beat someone with a bat, you might get charged with battery from the same root via French. And if you have an argument with someone, you might butt heads again via French. If the argument leads to a physical confrontation, then you might engage in combat from the same route. And if you gather supporters and face off against your opponent, then you might have a battle again from the same route via French. So all of that means that beat bat. But button and battle are cognate. They come from the same root. And even though William might not have known anything of buttons, he definitely knew about battles. And the ultimate kingship of England was going to be determined by a battle, Actually two different battles. In February of 1066, about a month after Edward died, William arranged a meeting of his closest allies and vassals. He told them that he planned to gather an army and invade England in the summer. This announcement was probably expected, but it was still met with a lot of skepticism. Many of William's allies and supporters weren't sure that he could pull off a successful invasion by sea. Yes, the Vikings had invaded England by sea, but they were skilled and adept at sailing and boat building. The Normans, on the other hand, were a land power, not a sea power. They didn't have the ships or the maritime skill to launch an invasion of England. Furthermore, when the Vikings invaded England, they fought on foot, just like the Anglo Saxons did. But the Normans had a cavalry and they fought on horseback with chainmail and armor. So horses would also have to be transported across the channel along with all of the knights equipment. Beyond the logistics of building ships and gathering an army big enough to actually win, they would be completely Dependent upon the wind to get there again, Viking ships could be rowed if the winds weren't favorable. But Norman ships relied solely upon the wind and sails, and the winds were unpredictable. In the North Atlantic, no wind would leave them stranded, and too much wind in the wrong direction would send them off course. So the logistics were a nightmare. And assuming they actually made it across the Channel intact, the English army would certainly be waiting for them. It wasn't going to be a surprise attack like most of the Viking raids, because everyone in England knew that William would be coming. And England was larger and richer than Normandy, So England could muster large armies, while William could only fight with the number of troops he could actually bring across the Channel on boats. In order for William to pull this off, he was going to have to be a pretty man. And by pretty, I don't mean the modern sense of the term as good looking. I'm referring to the original Old English meaning of the term. In Old English, the word pretty was pratty, and it meant cunning, skillful or tricky. In order for William to launch a successful invasion of England, he was going to have to be either a miracle worker or a magician. So he was going to have to be pratty. But if he was successful, he would be remembered for working wonders and doing what no other man could do. And that's how the sense of the word pratty evolved over time. By the Middle English period, it meant manly in the sense of a successful, honorable or admirable man. So a man you admired or respected might. Might be a pretty man. By the time of modern English, the meaning of pretty had shifted to mean attractive in a more physical sense. As it came to refer more and more to a person's physical appearance. It was applied to women more than men. But in 1066, Pratty still meant cunning, skillful or wily. But while William's supporters admired him and considered him cunning and skillful, they didn't necessarily think he could invade and defeat the Anglo Saxons. They suggested that William convene a wider council of all the barons in Normandy to get their input. In early spring, William did just that. But once again, William didn't get the response he wanted. The barons initially balked at William's proposal. But rather than give up, William met with each baron individually to convince them. And one by one, they gradually agreed, and each one promised to provide a certain number of soldiers and ships. Having finally secured the support of the Norman barons, William moved forward with his plans for invasion. But Norman support wasn't going to be enough. This was going to be a massive effort, not just a few Norman knights. So William quickly concluded that he needed support from other nobles throughout northern France. So he visited the neighboring counts and dukes to drum up support there as well. And it was at this point that William did something that proved to be crucial to the success of the overall mission. But more important for our story, he did something that ultimately contributed to the decline of Old English as a written language. So let me explain. Realizing that he needed support throughout France for his planned invasion, William decided to seek the approval of the one person who would give his mission legitimacy. The Pope. The Crusades were still about 30 years away, but the idea of papal support for a military mission wasn't new. If the Pope gave his blessing, all who died in support of the mission were deemed martyrs, and they would be guaranteed eternal salvation. So it was a great way to drum up support for the expedition. As it turned out, William had an inside connection to the Pope. The pope was Alexander II. About 20 years earlier, as a young cleric, Alexander had studied at a monastery in Normandy. While there, one of his teachers was a monk named Lanfranc, and Lanfranc was now a bishop in Normandy. He was not only a close ally of William, he was also a close friend of the Pope. So Lanfranc acted as a go between. William was seen as a sympathetic figure in Rome. He'd been a strong patron of the Church in Normandy, and Pope Alexander remembered his time in Normandy with great fondness. But more importantly, William argued that the English Church was out of line with Rome's teachings and that only he could bring it back into compliance. In the last episode, we saw that the Norman Archbishop of Canterbury, Robert of Jumier, had been kicked out of the country. When the Godwins returned from their exile and he was replaced by a loyal Godwin supporter, well, the papacy never fully accepted that development, and the Godwins were seen as the ones responsible for the exile of the archbishop. So the deck was already stacked against Harold and Rome. Furthermore, the English Church was so far away that Rome didn't always have a good sense of what was going on in England. That made it easy to convince the Pope that the English Church was out of control. But the biggest problem for the English Church may have been the fact that much of its literature and pastoral work was being composed in English rather than Latin. Since the time of Alfred the Great, the English Church had been translating parts of the Bible and other religious texts into English. And that was unusual. At the time, the original Latin texts were considered sacred, and any attempt to render them into a local vernacular was viewed with suspicion. In Rome, the Roman cardinals and church officials didn't speak English, so they weren't exactly sure what was being taught to the English congregations. They suspected that the true meaning of the original texts were being lost in those translations. So here we may find part of the answer for why Old English writing disappeared so quickly in the wake of the Norman Conquest. Certainly, the Church scribes in England didn't stop speaking English, so why did so many of them immediately stop writing in English after 1066? Well, it appears that it was all part of William's agenda. He promised to reform the English Church in order to get papal support for his invasion. And part of those reforms probably included a return to Latin and the relegation of English to a secondary role. So after the conquest, Latin once again became the primary language of the English Church and Old English writing began to disappear. So here we see some of the first linguistic consequences of the Norman Conquest. William's arguments ultimately convinced the Pope to give his blessing. And the Pope also granted William a papal banner to carry with him to England to show that he had the support of the Church. With the blessing of the Church, volunteers started to pour into Normandy from Flanders, Aquitaine and especially Brittany, which had many landless knights. William had effectively made them an offer they couldn't refuse. They were guaranteed landed estates if they succeeded and salvation if they failed. In the end, about one third of William's army was actually Norman, about one third was Breton, and the remaining one third was made up of other mercenaries, mostly from other parts of northern and central France. So the whole northern part of France had been pressed into service. Work soon began on the construction of ships to transport those troops across the Channel when the time was right. As winter turned into spring, planning for the Norman Conquest was underway. Meanwhile, across the Channel, King Harold had traveled to the north of England to shore up his support with the nobles there. The Anglo Saxon Chronicle reports that he headed south to London and arrived at Westminster on easter day in 1066. According to the Chronicle entry for 1066, in this year, King Harold came from York to Westminster on the Easter after the midwinter, when King Edward went forth. In the original Old English, it reads.
- [28:11]
Unknown
On die SEM ger cum Herod Kyung of Eothoric to Westminster to Thamesteren the Wearen after the midden winter, the se king forth Fjorda.
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Kevin Stroud
The Chronicle then tells us that easter fell on April 16th in that year. So Harold arrived back at Westminster on April 16, Easter Day. Now, notice that the Chronicle Says that Edward the Confessor died in midden, winter, midwinter. So winter was an Old English term. And if we trace the word winter back to its original Indo European root, we find that it's cognate with words like water and wet also, both Old English words. So winter, water and wet all derive from the same root. And I mention this because most scholars believe that the word winter originally meant the wet season. Of course, it was also the cold season. And that's why battles and wars were rarely fought in the wintertime. The fighting season didn't begin until spring and summer, when the weather improved. In the springtime, crops were planted and they didn't have to be harvested until the fall or autumn. So that left many of the available fighting men free to fight in the summer. And this is an important point because it meant that there was a window of opportunity for William to invade England beyond mid autumn. William would probably have to wait till the next year. And everyone on both sides of the Channel understood that. So when the Anglo Saxon chronicle says that Harold returned to London on Easter Day, we know that it was early spring and the fighting season was about to start. So it was time for Harold to prepare his defense of England. Now, I should note here that Harold would not have described this season as spring. He would have called it Lent in Old English. And Lent produced the word Lent, and Lent was later appropriated by the church for the Christian holiday. But originally, the word just referred to the spring season. In fact, the word Lent is cognate with the words long and length. And that's because the springtime was the time when the days grew longer. The original Germanic word for the season has been reconstructed as longitinas, literally long days. And that term was later shortened to Lent. And the season of Lent roughly coincided with the 40 days of penitence and fasting that preceded Easter. So Lent gradually acquired that specific Christian meaning. Since Lent acquired a specific religious meaning, over time, it became necessary to find a more general term to refer to the season itself. And since that season corresponded to the time of year when plants and flowers and leaves spring forth, that season started to be called spring or springtime in Middle English. But in 1066, it was still called Lent. And that time of year meant the fighting season was about to begin. Of course, the spring and summer comprise several months. So Harold didn't know exactly when the invasion would come, but he did know the direction it would come from. It would come from the south, from across the Channel. So Harold's only option was to station as many forces as he could across the southern coast of England. And that's what he did. From the Anglo Saxon Chronicle, we're told that King Harold gathered so much a ship force and also a land force, as no king ever did before, because he was informed that William the Bastard was would come hither and strive for this land. In Old English, the passage reads, herod.
- [31:56]
Unknown
Kyung je garra sua michilnes schiphere OND h landhera swan ankjung heron landa e nardida for tham tehim was yekuted that Willem bastard woldaheder on thyslan jewinen.
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Kevin Stroud
Now, within that passage we see several examples of Old English military terms which, which have since been replaced by French terms. First of all, it uses the term herre for army. Herre is Old English and army is French. We've seen that term here before in the term herrgeld, which was the army tax. And a version of the word still survives when we speak of harrying a town or region. So English herre was replaced with French. On army, the Chronicle says that Harold raised a schephere, literally a ship army, and a landherre, literally a land army. Of course, schepherre or ship army, was later replaced with the French word navy, and landherre or land army was replaced with the French word infantry. So the Chronicle captures these English words shortly before they were wiped away. And these are just small examples of what was getting ready to happen to the language. Now, in order to understand the challenge that faced Harold, we have to consider the nature of the English military at the time. It included a band of professional soldiers who were highly trained and were a very formidable force. These troops were called the Husscarls. The term husscarl is a Norse term that was brought to England by Cnut, who had his own band of Hus Carls. The Husscarls were still around during the time of Harald and they were his strongest warriors. They fought on foot with axes and swords in a manner inherited from the Vikings. The only problem with the huscarls is that there simply wasn't enough of them to defend the country against William's forces. So beyond the huscarls, Harold relied upon the fyrd, or fyrd in Old English. This was the local militia, the citizen soldiers. And once again we see an Old English military term, furd, which has been largely replaced with a French term, militia. And I should note that the word furred is closely related to the word ford, which was a shallow crossing point in a river and furred and ford are related to the words far and fairer, as in a seafarer. The connection between all of those words is that they all have to do with traveling. And the fyrd was called that because the armies were always on the move. So the fyrd were basically the armed travelers. Now, Harold could call up lots of men of the fyrd or militia, but they were all amateurs. They had very basic training, if any at all, and they had rarely been summoned over the past half a century. So most of them had never seen any combat. And that meant that they might not be reliable once a battle was underway. The other problem with the fird is that most of the men came from the farms across the countryside, so they would have to return to the farms in the fall in time to harvest the crops. Otherwise mass starvation would occur across the country. As Harold began to mobilize his army and navy across the southern coast of England, an ominous sign appeared in the sky. Just four days after Harold returned to London, Halley's Comet appeared. Of course, they didn't know it as Halley's Comet, and since it only appears every 75 years, most of them had never seen anything like it before. The Anglo Saxon Chronicle records the following. Then it happened that all through England such a sign in the heavens was seen as as no man had seen before.
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Unknown
Thou er yond el angeland sviltche takanon hirfanum je sewen sultje non erene ja seh.
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Kevin Stroud
Some men said that it was the comet star that some men call the long haired star.
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Unknown
Summa men quaodon that he comita sestere vera dona summa men hata thona faxodon sterran.
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Kevin Stroud
For many Anglo Saxons, this bright light in the night sky was believed to be a bad omen, a sign of God's wrath. Chronicle says of the comet that it shone for seven nights answered and perhaps.
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Unknown
It was an omen because as soon.
- [36:38]
Kevin Stroud
As it disappeared from the night sky, the first of Harold's enemies appeared on the horizon. But it wasn't William. It was Harold's brother, Tostig, who was returning from exile. Tostig arrived with a fleet of ships along the southeastern coast, seeking revenge and reinstatement to his prior position as Earl of Northumbria. But Tostig didn't have enough of a force to actually pose a serious threat. He was repeatedly turned away from the southern coast, but a southerly wind gave him no option but to sail up the eastern coast of England. When he reached the Humber south of York. He tried to go ashore again, and again he was turned away. So Tostig's feeble attempt at invasion had apparently come to an end, and he continued to head north to Scotland. But that was not the end of Tostig's story. From Scotland, he sailed across the North Sea to Norway. And guess who he met there? If you guessed, Harald Hardrada, you would be correct. Tostig actually made an alliance with Hardrada. Together they agreed to launch a joint invasion of England later in the summer. But no one in England actually knew that at the time in England, the focus was on William. To the south, the fyrd waded and waded along the southern coast, but there was no invasion. In fact, the Chronicle makes no report of any event in England from June until September. So the entire summer season passed without an invasion from the Normans or the Scandinavians. Earlier, I discussed the words winter and spring. So as summer turned into autumn, let's consider the origin of those words. Summer is also an Old English word. It was originally sumor. And for the following season we have two different fall and autumn, but neither word is Old English. Autumn was borrowed from French during the Middle English period. Fall actually developed a bit later in the 1600s. Just as spring referred to the time when leaves spring from the trees, fall referred to the season when those leaves fell to the ground. It was in common use in England in the 1600s and 1700s, when English settlers were migrating to North America. So American English still tends to use that term. But the word fall fell out of favor in England in later centuries, and today British English prefers the word autumn. But if we go back in time to the period of Old English, we find that the Anglo Saxons actually called the season hedvest, and it still survives as the word harvest. In fact, the word harvest originally was a seasonal term. It referred to a specific time of year. Of course, that was also the time when crops were gathered. So after the words autumn and fall came into use, the word harvest began to change its meaning and it took on a more restricted sense. It went from referring to the time when crops were gathered to the actual gathering of crops. Some of the original sense of the word still survives in the term harmony. Harvest moon, which is a full moon that occurs within two weeks of the beginning of autumn. Now, that little bit of etymology about the Anglo Saxon season of harvest is actually important to our story, because when the harvest season began, the men of the fird had to return home to harvest the crops. So harvest meant that the Anglo Saxon defenses would have to be withdrawn. Harold was probably counting the days as summer came to an end and the harvest season approached. But there was still no William. By this point in mid August, both William of Normandy and Harald Hardrada in Norway had assembled their respective fleets. Estimates vary, but it appears that William had about 700 ships in Normandy and Harald Hardrada had about 300 ships in Norway. And they were both ready to go whenever the winds were right. But here's the thing. Normandy is south of England and Norway is northeast of England. So William and Harold Hardrada were each waiting for different winds. William wanted a southerly wind to carry his fleet north, but Hardrada wanted the opposite. So the winds were literally winds of fate. They would determine the future of England. And as it turned out, the wind was coming out of the north, which was just what Harold Hardrada wanted. So around August 12, Hardrada was able to leave port on his way to Britain to meet up with Tostig. But William was still stuck in Normandy. A few days later, Hardrada's fleet landed in the islands north of Britain. He gathered additional men and supplies and met up with Tostig. His 300 ship fleet was the largest Viking fleet seen in Britain in over 50 years. By all accounts, neither King Harold of England nor William of Normandy was aware of Hardrada's arrival in northern Britain. William was still waiting for a favorable wind in Normandy, and Harold was still waiting for William on the other side of the channel. That meant the north was left largely undefended. We're now in early September. The Anglo Saxon furd had been stationed along the southern coast for most of the summer, and they were tired of waiting. By custom, service in the fird was limited to two months, so that time had run out. Provisions for the soldiers were also running low, and now it was harvest time. And the entire country was dependent upon the harvest to avoid starvation. So on September 8th, Harold made the decision to disband the fird and allow them to return home. That happened to be a holiday known as the Nativity of St. Mary. And it may have been agreed in advance that if William had not appeared by that date, everyone would be allowed to go home for the harvest season. They may have thought that it would be too late in the season for William to invade beyond that point, so the third was sent home. That left Harold with only his Hus, Carls, his professional soldiers. As we've seen, Hardrada and Tostig were already in northern Britain by this point. But Harold and his Husgarls didn't know that yet. With the Fur disbanded, Harold rode with his Husgarls back to London. A couple of days later, on September 12, Hardrada's forces in the north descended upon the town of Scarborough and they burned it to the ground. It was only at this point that the people in the north became aware that Harold Hardrada had landed. The news was sent to King Harold down in London, but even by horse, it would take several days for the news to reach him. From Scarborough, Hardrada and Tostig's fleet headed south to the Humber to approach York. York was second in size only to London, and it was the largest and most important city in the north. Six days after the burning of Scarborough, Hardrada and Tostig sailed up the Humber and disembarked from their ships. They headed toward York, but they were intercepted at a place called Fulford Gate by the two northern earls, Edwin and Morcar. Remember, they were the grandsons of Leofrich and Lady Godiva, and Morcar was the earl who had replaced Tostig when Tostig was exiled. The two Anglo Saxon earls were mere teenagers and they never fought in a major battle. Meanwhile, Harald Hardrada was one of the most experienced and well known Viking warriors in Northern Europe. So it was no match. Hardrada's forces won a decisive victory, but the two earls survived. The Anglo Saxon Chronicle briefly records these events. It says of Hardrada and Tostig, they both went into the Humber until they.
- [44:49]
Unknown
Came to Hyforn thy bean into Humbran or thet he com to Eothorwic and.
- [44:57]
Kevin Stroud
Fought with them there. Earl Edwin and Earl Morker, his brother.
- [45:02]
Unknown
An haem ther eadwyd Erl an Morkere Erl his brother.
- [45:09]
Kevin Stroud
But the Norwegians had the victory.
- [45:12]
Unknown
Achta Norman Achtensea.
- [45:15]
Kevin Stroud
The day after Hardrada's victory, the northern earls surrendered York. And for this brief period, Harold Hardrada was the effective ruler of Northern England. More importantly, there was an agreement to provide Hardrada with hostages at a place called Stamford Bridge, about seven miles east of York. The date was September 19th or 20th, and by all accounts, the news of the burning of Scarborough a few days earlier was just now reaching Harold down in London. At this point, Harold realized that he'd made a mistake. He had spent the entire summer focused on William's threat from Normandy, a threat which had never materialized. But now Harald Hardrada was invading from the north. Furthermore, the fird had just been disbanded, so he didn't have a full army to mobilize. So he did the only thing he could do at the spur of the moment. As soon as he got the news that Hardrada was in the north, King Harald pulled together his huscarls and any other troops that he could and he headed north. On September 20, he pulled out of London. Estimates are that he had about 7,000 men with him. Just four days later, the Anglo Saxon army arrived near York, 190 miles away. It was an incredible feat just to cover that much ground in such a short time with 7,000 men. Harold arrived near York just as Hardrada and Tostig were set to receive hostages from the conquered city. Harold's troops completely surprised Hardrada and Tostig at Stamford Bridge. Hardrada's forces weren't expecting battle, so they were spread out and disorganized. And despite the long and exhausting march, Harold's rapid attack had worked. He had the element of surprise on his side. The Anglo Saxons actually had a word for that type of surprise attack. It was called a fair. And even though the word has lost its original military sense, it still survives in modern English as the word fear. And that's because a fear generated fear in the enemy. The Anglo Saxon chronicle records these events. It says, then came our King Harald on the Norwegians unawares.
- [47:31]
Unknown
Fulcum herald IR kyung on unwere on thy Norman.
- [47:36]
Kevin Stroud
And met them beyond York at Stamford Bridge with a great host of English folk.
- [47:42]
Unknown
On hilter he beyond a furoeg at Steinfeld Bridge. Mid mutille and Herr English. Focus.
- [47:50]
Kevin Stroud
The battle began when Harold's army crossed the bridge to confront Hardrada's forces. The two sides met and began to fight in hand to hand combat. By all accounts, it was a brutal battle. The Anglo Saxon chronicle says there was that day a very terrible fierce battle fought on both sides.
- [48:12]
Unknown
Ant derwert on de suite.
- [48:19]
Kevin Stroud
In the course of the battle, both Harald Hardrada and Tostig were killed. The Scandinavians soon realized that they had been defeated and they began to retreat to their ships. The chronicle records the Norwegians that were left were put to flight.
- [48:35]
Unknown
Dun Norman tha the.
- [48:40]
Kevin Stroud
And the English fiercely struck them from behind.
- [48:44]
Unknown
Anta inglischan hi hie den hetele slochen.
- [48:48]
Kevin Stroud
Until some of them came to ship.
- [48:51]
Unknown
Authat he suma to schupukman. Some drowned summa adruchen.
- [48:58]
Kevin Stroud
Some were burnt.
- [48:59]
Unknown
Ansuma eche forbearneda.
- [49:02]
Kevin Stroud
Some perished in various ways answer misliche for ferna so that there were few left.
- [49:10]
Unknown
That theater was lut to laffe and.
- [49:14]
Kevin Stroud
The English had the Power of the.
- [49:16]
Unknown
Battlefield and angle achten weil stoa jewelda.
- [49:22]
Kevin Stroud
And then the chronicle suggests the extent of the devastation. It reads, and the king let them fare home with 24 ships.
- [49:32]
Unknown
Anse Kyung. He let him ferran mid ferrer and 20 shupem.
- [49:37]
Kevin Stroud
So the Viking army arrived with 300 ships full of men. But it only took 24 ships to take the survivors home. After the Battle of Stamford Bridge, Harald Hardrada, one of the mightiest Viking warriors, was dead and Tostig was dead. The massive Viking army had been vanquished. But more importantly, the Scandinavian claims to the English throne were now extinguished. For all practical purposes, this was the last battle of the Viking age in Britain. While Harold's men cleared the battlefield and piled up the bodies, they probably thought they could take a deep breath. They had survived a surprise attack and ended the Viking claims to the throne. But on the night of September 26, the day after the Battle of Stamford Bridge, the winds finally shifted on the English Channel. A southerly wind was finally available to William. At his direction, the Norman fleet was readied and they headed across the Channel. The next day, on the morning of September 28, they arrived at Pevensey Bay on the southern coast of England. William's army landed on the English shore without any opposition. As we know, the fird or militia had been called off about 20 days before. On top of that, Harold and his army were still at Stamford Bridge, clearing the battlefield there and having a celebratory feast. When William arrived at Pevensey, it's unlikely that he knew anything about the Battle of Stamford Bridge, but he could probably surmise that Harold's troops were occupied elsewhere. The lack of resistance allowed the Normans to occupy the small town of Hastings near the southern coast, and he built a fortification there. Once again, the Anglo Saxon Chronicle records these events. Then Count William came from Normandy to Pevensey on Michaelmas Eve, September 28th.
- [51:38]
Unknown
Da come William Erle of Normandia into Pevensia on Sancta Michelis Massaavon.
- [51:46]
Kevin Stroud
And as soon as they were prepared, they built a castle at the town.
- [51:50]
Unknown
Of Hastings on Sunathas. He ferewerin Wachten Castle at Hastingaport.
- [51:59]
Kevin Stroud
Now, this is the first mention of the town of Hastings, and it's about to become very famous for the final battle which was fought there. I should note here that the original Saxon town of Hastings now lies underwater, and in fact, the entire coastline looks much different today than it did a thousand years ago. In 1066, Hastings was located on a small peninsula which stuck out into the ocean. It was basically a triangle, roughly 10 miles by 6 miles. It was an odd piece of land. And I used the word odd in the original sense of the word. The word odd comes to us thanks to the Vikings. It was originally the old Norse word ode, and it originally meant a piece of land which stuck out in the water. Since those pieces of land were often triangle shaped, the word odd came to refer to a triangle or something three sided. In later years, it came to refer to the third part of something. So in a dispute, that third party was the deciding vote. We still have that sense of the word when we speak of odd numbers and even numbers. An odd number is a number with a tiebreaker. In a three way vote, it's often two against one. And the one that was different was sometimes called the odd man. His views and opinions were not shared by the majority. And that's how we got the modern sense of the word odd as something strange or different. Anyway, since the word odd was a Norse word, it was entering English around this time in the 11th century, and Hastings was located on an odd or ode along the southern English coast. After settling in the area, the Normans laid waste to the surrounding coastal areas and they spent the remaining days resting and preparing for battle against the Anglo Saxon army. As soon as William landed on the English shore, word went out that the Normans had finally arrived. But King Harold was still in the north of England cleaning up after the Battle of Stamford Bridge. Estimates are that it took about three days to get the word to Harold, about 250 miles away in the north. So around October 1st or 2nd, Harold was finally informed that William and the Normans had invaded and that they had gathered around Hastings. It had only been a week since the Battle of Stamford Bridge, and even though Harold's army had won, it was still tired and wounded and depleted. Nevertheless, Harold felt that he had no choice but to gather his tired army and quickly head south to meet William. In fact, the troops of the northern earls Edwin and Morcar were too depleted to join the trek. So within one day, Harold gathered his huscarls and any other troops he could cobble together and they headed south. They traveled through London and gathered a few more troops there. On October 10, he headed out of London towards Hastings, about 70 miles away. The Anglo Saxon chronicle tells us that the rendezvous point was an old apple tree which stood on a hill called Senlac. The hill cut across the only road out of Hastings, so it was a good defensive position. It was high ground and it blocked William's only way out. Harold and his men arrived at the Hill on October 13th. Over the past two weeks, Harold had marched a small band of soldiers from London to Stamford Bridge and defeated a formidable Viking army. And he had then turned around and marched a depleted army all the way back down to the southern coast to face William of Normandy. In retrospect, this was probably a mistake. It's generally agreed that had Harold waited a few days before proceeding to Hastings, he could have gathered many more men. But Harold proceeded anyway. The morning after Harold's troops arrived at Sadlac Hill, William gathered his forces for battle. The date was October 14, 1066, the day of the Battle of Hastings. The Anglo Saxon Chronicle suggests that it was William who had the element of surprise. The chronicle says of Harold's forces, William came upon them unawares before they were drawn up for battle.
- [56:19]
Unknown
William him common jehan on wer on this folk ye fulched vera.
- [56:26]
Kevin Stroud
Historians continue to debate how many troops there were on each side. Harold probably had around 5,000 trained soldiers, plus some farmers and peasants who had joined him on his trek south. In all, it was probably about 7 or 8,000 men. William's army was probably about the same size, about 7,000 or 8,000 men. But all of William's forces were highly trained, professional soldiers. Even though the two armies were about the same size, they were completely different in structure. As I've noted, Harold's Anglo Saxon army fought on foot, just as they always had. But William's army was much more diverse. He had about 4,000 infantrymen, and he also had about 1,000 archers or bowmen. But then he had about 3,000 men who fought on horseback. And remember that the Norman cavalry was a product of the French feudal age. Even though the Anglo Saxons didn't fight on horseback, they did have a word for it. It was called ared, but after Hastings, it was replaced with the French word cavalry. As the two forces met at Hastings, Harold took up his defensive position on the crest of the hill. His forces stood shoulder to shoulder to form a shield wall against the cavalry and the archers. Harold placed his husscarls in the middle of the line and the men of the fird on either end. Meanwhile, William divided his army into three roughly equal parts. The center consisted of the Normans. On the left flank he stationed his Breton allies, and on the right flank, he placed his other French and Flemish allies. William's archers allowed them to take aim at the English infantry from a distance. The cavalry would then attempt to smash through the shield wall. But that plan didn't work as William intended. As his cavalry approached Harold's shield wall, they were turned away again and again. This continued for the entire morning. So despite having a tired and depleted army, it actually looked like Harold's forces would emerge victorious. Around 11:30 in the morning, there was a break in the action. Everyone caught their breath. And around 2:30 in the afternoon, the battle began again. For more than two hours, the Normans tried to break through the English shield wall, but continued to be unsuccessful. The Normans were accustomed to fighting against other cavalries and they never encountered anything like the Anglo Saxon shield wall before. At one point in the afternoon, the Normans actually gave up and started to retreat. But the untrained Anglo Saxon fur on either end of the shield wall made the mistake of breaking ranks to pursue the fleeing Normans. They followed them down to level ground and. And there on level ground, without the benefit of the shield wall, the Normans had the advantage. William rallied his troops to counter attack. The Norman cavalry turned around and standing in their stirrups, the Normans started to cut down the Anglo Saxon fighters. The tide slowly turned in William's favor. In the course of this counter attack, Harold was killed. But it isn't entirely clear how he was killed. The Bayeux Tapestry suggests that he was shot through the eye with an arrow. Other sources say that a group of Normans attacked him and hacked him to death. With Harold's death and the darkness of the late afternoon, the Anglo Saxon shield wall finally broke down. The Normans then proceeded to cut them apart. The fallen soldiers included the King and his brothers, thereby leaving no surviving male member of the Godwin family. A large portion of the nobility in southern England was also wiped out. And at the end of the day, William had won the Battle of Hastings and much of the English aristocracy had been decimated. According to the Anglo Saxon Chronicle, the French held the Field of the Dead.
- [60:32]
Unknown
Vafrenschenachten, Wel Stoje Weld.
- [60:37]
Kevin Stroud
With Harold dead, England had no king and there was no obvious choice left to succeed him. And the key towns and cities could no longer be fortified. But William didn't advance directly to London. He returned to the coastal and port cities of southeastern England and he forced them to submit. That included Dover and Canterbury. That ensured that he had a way to retreat back to Normandy if he needed it. Up in London, the remaining members of the Witan, mostly church officials, tried to pick a new king before William arrived. They selected the only remaining member of the old Wessex line of kings. It was that young grand nephew of Edward the Confessor, known as Edgar the Atheling. He was still a boy, but there was no other choice. According to the Anglo Saxon Chronicle, Archbishop Aldred and the townspeople of London would then have child Edgar for King Aldred.
- [61:33]
Unknown
Archbishop Ansea birhwaru lundener wolden haben the.
- [61:38]
Kevin Stroud
Edgar chill to kyunga as was his natural right. El soitim wel y quent el. But even though he was selected as King, Edgar was never crowned. By this time, William was closing in on London. As William slowly advanced day after day, the resistance began to fade away. The fact that William had that papal banner mean may have been a decisive factor here. Most of the southern nobles had been killed at Hastings. The northern earls, Edward and Morcar were still alive, but they were only teenagers. So the church officials were effectively in charge at this point, specifically the Archbishops of Canterbury and York. And by this point they knew that William had received the blessing and the banner of the Pope. The fact that William had defeated the Anglo Saxons seemed to suggest that God was indeed on his side. And at this point, William's capture of London seemed inevitable. So the Archbishop of Canterbury came to meet William and he acknowledged William as the new ruler of England. That enabled William to take London without a fight, and young Edgar was abandoned. William then met with the leaders of London and a coronation ceremony was set for Christmas Day. William chose to receive the crown at the brand new Westminster Abbey, the church that had been dedicated almost exactly one year earlier. And that choice was intentional. William wanted to reinforce the idea that he was the legitimate heir of Edward the Confessor. And what better way to do that than to be the first king crowned in Edward's church? On Christmas Day 1066, William was crowned as King of England in Westminster Abbey. The Anglo Saxon chronicle records the event as follows. And William this land conquered and came to Westminster.
- [63:33]
Unknown
Willem Thisland yielde un culm to Westminster.
- [63:37]
Kevin Stroud
And Archbishop Eldred consecrated or hallowed him as King.
- [63:43]
Unknown
And Eldred Archbishop Hinatu cunge je hell.
- [63:48]
Kevin Stroud
William's coronation ceremony was conducted in both Latin and English. And during the coronation a new element was introduced. A call for the people to consent to William's rule. The people assembled in the abbey were questioned in both French and English as to whether they accepted William as their ruler. The congregation shouted, vivat rex. And then in English, long live the King. But William's assembled knights outside of the abbey misinterpreted the commotion inside. They heard the yelling and thought a revolt was underway. So they went on a rampage and set fire to the surrounding buildings and killed many of the Saxons who were assembled outside. It was an ominous beginning to William's reign. The political and social changes were just beginning, and so were the linguistic changes. Old English text became much less common after Hastings. Latin and French would become the standard written languages going forward. In fact, the Abington version of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle ended abruptly in 1066 after recording the Battle of Stamford Bridge. The version of the chronicle, known as the Parker Chronicle, contains only one more entry in old English after 1066. That entry was in the year 1070. After that, the remaining entries were written in Latin. Another version was maintained in Old English until the year 1079, but only one surviving version was maintained in English. Beyond that, the Peterborough Chronicle in the north was maintained until the year 1154, and it's one of the few surviving documents that was still being written in English at that late date. Next time, we'll turn our attention to the aftermath of the Norman Conquest and we'll look at the surviving documents to try to trace the changes that were starting to occur. As we shift our focus to the post conquest period, we'll return to the actual language itself and we'll try to follow the relatively quick transition from Old English to Middle English. So until next time, thanks for listening to the History of English podcast. SA.