Throughline: Iran and the U.S., Part Two: Rules of Engagement

Hosted by Rund Abdelfatah and Ramtin Arablouei | Released June 28, 2025

Introduction

In the second installment of the "Iran and the U.S." series, NPR's Throughline delves deeper into the complex and often adversarial relationship between Iran and the United States. Building on the foundation laid in Part One, which examined the 1953 CIA-backed coup in Iran, this episode navigates through pivotal moments from the 1979 Islamic Revolution to the dawn of cyber warfare, uncovering how historical events have shaped contemporary geopolitical tensions.

The 1979 Islamic Revolution and Hostage Crisis

Rund Abdelfatah opens the episode by contextualizing the seismic shift in Iran's political landscape in 1979. The secular Shah, installed by the U.S. after the 1953 coup, faced an overwhelming Islamic revolution led by Ayatollah Khomeini.

Key Events:

• Violent Clashes in Tehran: "[For the last seven days, Tehran and other cities have seen violent clashes between troops and demonstrators... The Shah was forced to flee Iran.]" ([00:57]-[02:00])
• Rise of Ayatollah Khomeini: Khomeini’s ascent marked the beginning of a hostile era in U.S.-Iran relations, declaring, "Foreign advisers have ruined our culture and have taken our oil." ([01:35]-[01:42])
• Iran Hostage Crisis: Shortly after the revolution, Iranian students stormed the American embassy in Tehran, capturing 60 Americans and initiating a protracted hostage situation. "Inevitably, the result is massacre," reflects Historian 1 on the ensuing violence. ([01:10]-[02:25])

The Iran-Iraq War and Its Geopolitical Impact

The episode transitions to the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), one of the bloodiest conflicts of the late 20th century, and examines its lasting repercussions on regional stability and U.S.-Iran relations.

Key Events:

• Initial Invasion and Prolonged Conflict: Iraq's invasion of Iran initially yielded territorial gains but eventually bogged down, leading to over a million casualties. "The Iran-Iraq war was one of the bloodiest wars of the second half of the 20th century." ([05:17]-[05:31])
• Tanker Wars: Both nations targeted each other's oil shipments to cripple the economies. "For both countries, oil is the lifeblood of their economy... trying to sink one another's oil tankers." ([06:39]-[07:50])
• U.S. Involvement: The U.S. reflagged Kuwaiti tankers with American flags to protect them, escalating tensions. "We were kind of in effect, protecting our own ships at sea." ([09:38]-[10:05])

Notable Quote: "What you see is this, this conflict zone in which everyone has their finger on the trigger... there's constant risk of miscalculation." – Historian 2 ([12:14]-[12:29])

The Downing of Iran Air Flight 655

A tragic miscalculation during the tanker wars led to the accidental downing of a civilian airliner, exacerbating hostilities.

Key Events:

• Incident Overview: The USS Vincennes mistakenly identified an Iranian civilian airliner as a military target, resulting in the deaths of 290 civilians. "We were engaged in a low intensity conflict with Iran... which culminated in the downing of Iran Air Flight 655." ([15:23]-[15:56])
• Aftermath and Perceptions: While the U.S. labeled it a tragic mistake, Iran perceived it as a deliberate act of hostility. "Even if America claimed it was a mistake, the message... was that this was an act of open hostility." ([17:18]-[17:35])

Notable Quote: "The fog of war, coupled with both a miscalculation, itchy trigger fingers and inability to communicate... resulted in this terrible tragedy." – Historian 2 ([12:29]-[16:10])

Emergence of Hezbollah and Proxy Warfare

The emergence of Hezbollah in the early 1980s signaled a new phase of proxy conflicts, with Iran leveraging militant groups to advance its strategic interests.

Key Events:

• Hezbollah's Formation: "Hezbollah was created to fight Israel whose army invaded and occupied..." ([24:03]-[25:05])
• Iran's Strategic Use of Proxies: Iran invested in Shia militias across the Middle East, employing asymmetric warfare tactics to counterbalance the U.S. and its allies. "Iran has a monopoly over Shia radicalism... giving Iran two layers of deniability." ([31:03]-[32:24])

Notable Quote: "One of the lessons of this conflict... both sides were pretty good at keeping the level of conflict within a certain kind of relatively narrow band." – Historian 3 ([17:35]-[18:11])

Cyber Warfare and the Stuxnet Virus

Transitioning to the digital age, the episode explores the advent of cyber warfare through the lens of the Stuxnet virus, a groundbreaking cyberattack aimed at crippling Iran's nuclear program.

Key Events:

• Development of Stuxnet: Initiated in the mid-2000s, Stuxnet was a sophisticated collaboration between the U.S. and Israel designed to sabotage Iran’s Natanz nuclear facility. "Stuxnet was a partnership between the US and Israel... to stop Iran from obtaining enough enriched uranium gas to have a bomb." ([35:33]-[42:26])
• Mechanics of the Attack: The virus infiltrated air-gapped systems via USB sticks, manipulating centrifuge operations while masking sabotage activities. "Stuxnet feeds false information to the monitoring stations... froze the safety mechanisms." ([39:01]-[42:26])
• Consequences and Escalation: As Stuxnet spread beyond its intended target, it exposed the vulnerabilities of digital infrastructure and ignited a cyber arms race. "Digital warfare erases geographical distance. Now the front line is on businesses and critical infrastructure here." – Kim Zetter ([48:15]-[49:19])

Notable Quotes:

• "Stuxnet was proof of concept for any nation to see that digital capabilities like this are a viable alternative." – Kim Zetter ([47:47]-[48:03])
• "Digital warfare erases that distance. Now the front line is on businesses and critical infrastructure here." – Historian 4 ([48:15]-[49:19])

The Shadow War: Asymmetric Tactics and Future Implications

The episode concludes by examining the ongoing shadow war, highlighting Iran's continued use of asymmetric strategies to counterbalance U.S. military superiority and projecting its influence across the Middle East.

Key Points:

• Asymmetric Warfare: Iran's reliance on proxy groups, cyber attacks, and unconventional tactics to challenge U.S. dominance. "Iran has honed the ability to use low cost, high impact ways to challenge the United States." ([20:21]-[32:24])
• Regional Influence: Expanding influence through support for militias in Iraq, Syria, Yemen, and beyond, effectively "McDonaldizing" the Hezbollah model. "Iran is able to fill those voids much more effectively with these Shia proxies on the ground." ([30:28]-[31:03])
• Future of U.S.-Iran Relations: The enduring legacy of these conflicts suggests that U.S.-Iran tensions are likely to persist, with cyber warfare representing a new frontier in their adversarial relationship.

Notable Quote: "What that has done is it's opened up this new kind of warfare where it's lowered the bar of the actors who can engage in it." – Kim Zetter ([47:47]-[48:03])

Conclusion

Through meticulous historical analysis, Throughline illustrates how a series of interconnected events have entrenched hostility between Iran and the United States. From coups and revolutions to proxy wars and cyberattacks, each chapter underscores the complexity and resilience of this fraught relationship. As the shadow war continues to evolve, understanding its origins is crucial for navigating the future dynamics of international relations.

Notable Contributors

• Karim Sajadpour: Senior Fellow at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
• Michael Eisenstadt: Director of the Washington Institute's Military and Security Studies Program
• Kim Zetter: Cybersecurity Reporter and Author of Countdown to Zero

This summary was crafted based on the transcript provided, highlighting the episode's critical discussions and insights into the enduring and evolving tensions between Iran and the United States.