← American History Tellers
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Hello, American Historyteller listeners. I have an exciting announcement. I'm going on tour and coming to a theater near you. This live show is a thrilling evening of history, storytelling and music, with a full band accompanying me as we look back to explore the days that made America. And they aren't the days that you might think. Sure, everyone knows July 4th, 1776. We'll be hearing a lot about that date this year. But there are many other days that are maybe even more influential. So come out to see me live. More shows to be announced soon. So for information on tickets and upcoming dates, go to american historylive.com that's american historylive.com come see my days that Made America tour live on stage. Go to american historylive.com. Imagine It's April 17, 1888, in New York City. You're an editor with a popular tabloid and working on the morning shift in the newsroom. You've got a break, so you sit down at your desk for a breakfast of lukewarm coffee and a pastrami sandwich. As you take your first sip, you hear knock at your door. A young reporter rushes in. Sorry to interrupt, sir, but I just got tomorrow's front page story. Front page story, huh? Well, I'll be the judge of that, kid. What is it? You know the corner of East Broadway and Catherine Street? Yeah, I know it. I walk past it every morning. Well, last night, a boy was playing around a lamppost and happened to touch a loose wire. Zap. He falls dead. Dead? Just like that? Yeah. Witnesses say he was just horsing around. They saw him grab a dangling telegraph wire and dance around the pole. But then when it came in contact with another loose wire, it sparked. The boy staggered back and fell down on the sidewalk, dead as a doornail. So the electricity killed him? Apparently. And it was only a matter of time before someone got hurt. Folks told me those wires have been damaged and hanging down for weeks. Well, now there are loose wires all over this city. It's hard to tell which ones are electrified. Everyone complains about them. Yeah, but no one's doing anything about it. And this kid, he was just 15 years old. He had eight brothers and sisters and was selling pocket combs to help his mother put food on the table. Oh, that poor family. Yeah. It sounds like this is a final straw for folks. Yeah. What do you mean? Well, I talked to a shop owner and a couple of witnesses who are planning march down to the mayor's office, demand that all the wires be taken down. The shop owners got a Mess of them right over his storefront and says they sparked in the last storm and no one came to fix them. Now, well, hold on. Those wires supply electricity to the city. You know those lights down on Broadway? We ran a piece just last month calling them a sign of progress. We can't very well turn around and call them a menace now. Sir, it's clear from my reporting that for many people, they've stopped being a novelty and have become a sign of corruption and now even death. I've never seen people so angry. And the corruption part is true, too. I got a pal in City hall who says he's seen a stack of bids for more electrical contracts, all rubber stamped without a glance. Is that so? It is. And I think our duty is to say something. I mean, if we don't, more people could die. Well, there are a lot of powerful men with a lot at stake in this new technology. But I suppose we do have to report on this kid's untimely demise. That's in the public interest for sure. Yes, sir, I'd say it is. But let's just hope we don't lose advertisers of this. And you'd better make sure your guy at City hall is right if we're going to risk upsetting some of the most powerful people in Manhattan. I want this story airtight. You hear me? Yes, sir. You got it. Alright then. What are you doing standing around in my office? Get writing. Until now, electrical lighting has been a source of pride for New York City. But it's hard to deny that the overhead cables have become a menace. And the death of an innocent boy changes things. If the public is this angry and there's evidence that the city is ignoring safety, that's a story that must be told. And there's no way you're going to let your competitors beat you to it.
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You know that moment when you order food and suddenly everyone around you gets very interested in your dinner?
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Yeah.
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Whether you're exploring your fascinations or discovering new ones, Ottawa has stories that will introduce you to your most fascinating self. Tap into a whole new world of heated conversations with a saucy romantasy series. Know how true the latest blockbuster movie stayed to the sci fi story it was based on, or find unexpected reveals through an exclusive true crime podc. However you listen, Audible keeps you fascinated so you can be just as fascinating. Select any audiobook every month, plus exclusive podcasts. Plans now start at $8.99 audible. Be fascinated, Be Fascinating. From Audible Originals. I'm Lindsey Graham and this is American Historytellers. Our History, your Story. By 1888, the race to power America's cities had become a battle between two rival visions. On one side was Thomas Edison, the famed inventor of the incandescent light bulb, who sought to expand his empire built on a system of direct current, or dc. On the other, industrialist George Westinghouse and the visionary inventor Nikola Tesla, pushing their alternating current, or ac, system as a faster, cheaper and more efficient way to bring electricity to homes, factories and cities across the country. But what began as a technological disagreement quickly turned personal and ugly. Their bitter fight spilled into courtrooms, ignited a national debate about capital punishment, and culminated in a fierce competition for the contract to illuminate the most ambitious, ambitious event of the decade, the Chicago World's Fair. Whoever emerged victorious would have the chance to seize control of America's growing electrical market and set the standard for the nation's electrical grid for the coming century. This is the third episode in our series, Edison versus Triumph of Illumination. In the spring of 1888, a series of accidental electrocutions on the streets of New York City set off a public panic. In April, a 15 year old boy came in contact with a live wire on Broadway and was immediately struck dead. Less than a month later, an electrical worker suspended beside a two story building, clearing away old wires, was also struck by a powerful current. Witnesses inside the building had to pull his charred body in through a window, and these gruesome deaths shocked the public and heightened fears about the web of electrical wires hanging above Manhattan's busy streets. What had once been viewed as a sign of progress and modernity increasingly began to be seen as a deadly hazard. Electrical lighting had first been installed on Broadway in 1880, and in the years that followed, the city's network of overhead wires had expanded rapidly. In a rush of competition, nearly a dozen companies strung hundreds of lines above the streets to carry current for electric lights, telegraph systems and telephones, with many of the lines carrying high voltage Alternating current. Although the city had official oversight of these lines, rampant corruption and weak enforcement allowed dangerous conditions to persist. And as a result, when a heavy snow or high winds hit the city, the live wires were often blown down to within striking distance of pedestrians. Thomas Edison, the city's most famous electrical inventor, had long railed against these overhead lines. Edison's direct current system relied on cables that ran underground safely out of reach of the public. His lines also operated at a voltage between 100 to 200 volts, while some of the overhead AC lines pulsed with as much as 10 times that amount. Edison warned that these AC lines were dangerous to life, arguing that even momentary contact with them could cause paralysis or death. But Edison's criticism of AC power was not just about safety. It was also a bid to stamp out competition. Since the successful launch of his Pearl street power station six years earlier, Edison's company had expanded rapidly, installing more than 120 D.C. stations across the country. And by 1888, Edison's company was the leader in the industry. But as his network expanded, the limitations of direct current were becoming harder for customers to ignore. Some expressed frustration that D.C. could only supply electricity within a half mile of a generating station, meaning that any community or business beyond that range had to set up an entirely new and expensive power station. This put electrification out of reach for many potential customers. Seeing an opening in the market, the brilliant and eccentric inventor Nikola Tesla led the push for AC power and was backed by industrialist George Westinghouse. Westinghouse had built his fortune by revolutionizing railroad safety, but now was turning that same ambition toward electricity. His company, Westinghouse Electric, began signing up customers in cities where Edison had earlier staked his claim, like New Orleans. But when Edison heard of his rival's advances, he dismissed Westinghouse curtly, suggesting that he ought to stick to railroads. But Westinghouse had no intention of backing off. In his Pittsburgh laboratories, he and Tesla were working to refine an alternating current system based on Tesla's designs, and they were eager to bring it to the commercial market. Tesla's system promised to deliver electricity to a far wider area than Edison's because it carried high voltage AC power over long distances and then used transformers to step the current up or down so it be used most efficiently. There was a problem, though. While the concept worked beautifully in theory so far, Tesla had only demonstrated it on a small scale and he had yet to find a way to integrate it into Westinghouse's existing power stations. Edison, meanwhile, remained critical of Tesla's AC model. He warned the public that if a transformer failed to reduce the current before reaching a building, it could turn an entire structure into a death chamber. He even called on electricians to unite in a war of extermination against AC. But AC's potential lethality would soon lead Edison to envision a surprising new application. At the time, the State of New York had encountered a series of mishaps with hangings of criminals and had appointed a death commission to look into electrocution as a more humane alternative. This commission reached out to Edison to seek his advice, and though he had long opposed capital punishment, the inventor realized that the very power he condemned for public use could serve a grim practical purpose, ending lives swiftly and efficiently. So he reversed his previous stance and endorsed the state's pursuit of electricity for execution, taking it one step further by specifically recommending Westinghouse's existing AC system for the task. And with Edison's recommendation, in the spring of 1888, the New York State legislature passed a bill making death by electricity the preferred method for the next state execution. Very soon after, on June 5, 1888, a little known engineer and electrical consultant named Harold Brown wrote an editorial in the New York Evening Post. He called for an outright ban on the transmission of ac power above 300 volts, a measure that would effectively outlaw the system Westinghouse and Tesla were working to develop. Brown, a self styled crusader, claimed to have no ties to Edison. But the newspaper that printed his editorial was owned by one of Edison's longtime investors, leading some to suspect Brown's crusade wasn't just about safety. Nevertheless, with the panic over the recent accidental deaths, Brown's letter gained traction. And just a few days later, on June 8th, the New York City Board of Electrical Control met to consider outlawing AC power. The board asked George Westinghouse to respond to the charges that his AC system was dangerous. But Westinghouse declined and instead wrote directly to his rival Edison, inviting him to visit his workshop in Pittsburgh so they could resolve their dispute. Edison refused this offer. With his attempt to make peace rebuffed, Westinghouse launched a full throated defense of his AC system the following month. And when the New York board met on July 16, the hearing included an official response from Westinghouse in which he defended his company, saying that out of the 127ac stations he'd installed, not a single one had sustained a fire or accident. He called the attacks on his company unmanly, discreditable and untruthful. Then he went further, charging that it was Edison's D.C. stations that were prone to accidents, citing a fire that had destroyed a station in Boston. In the meantime, the engineer Harold Brown stepped up his crusade against AC power, but also joined the call for AC to be used in executions. And then he reached out to Edison, explaining that he wanted to prove how lethal AC power could be with scientific evidence. Edison obliged him by offering the use of his New Jersey lab and the assistance of one of his most trusted employees, Charles Batchelor. Together, Brown and Batchelor began a series of gruesome experiments using high voltage AC power to shock and kill dogs, then a calf and then a large horse. At Edison's lab, a member of the New York Death Commission looked on as Brown shocked the animals with jolts of high voltage AC electricity. But back in Pittsburgh, Westinghouse was outraged when he learned of these deadly experiments on animals. And he continued to defend the safety of his AC systems. And the public relations issue was not his only problem. Behind the scenes, Westinghouse was struggling to integrate Nikola Tesla's system into his own existing infrastructure. Ever the idealist, Tesla insisted that Westinghouse's central stations be retrofitted to be compatible with his superior technology. But Westinghouse's engineers opposed the idea of their company already had 200 central stations spread across the eastern and central U.S. these engineers warned Westinghouse that retrofitting them would be an enormous undertaking, one that would hand Edison a significant competitive advantage at a critical moment. So Tesla found his advice going unheeded. And by the summer of 1889, Tesla had grown frustrated. Unable to bring his system to commercial scale, he left Pittsburgh. He later recalled, I was not free at Pittsburgh. I was dependent and could not work. So Tesla returned to New York to experiment on his own terms at a new laboratory on grand street, just as momentum was building toward the first execution by electricity. After campaigning for electricity as a means of execution, Harold Brown and his allies got their wish when William Kemmler, a convicted murderer from Buffalo, was sentenced to die by electric chair. Brown had even gone so far as to quietly secure a Westinghouse AC generator to be used for the execution. But the decision to execute Kemmler immediately sparked controversy and Kemmler's attorney appealed, arguing that electrocution amounted to cruel and unusual punishment. The case quickly captured the public's attention, turning into a media spectacle as business leaders, scientists and experts were all asked to weigh in on whether electricity should be used to take a human life. Eventually, the controversy escalated to the point that Thomas Edison himself was called to testify. Imagine it's July 23, 1889, in New York City. You're an attorney and your client is scheduled to become the first prisoner to be executed in the so called electric chair. Today. Your office is packed with newspaper reporters, legal staff and state officials, all here to observe the expert testimony the judge has called for in this case. Testimony you hope will prove that death by electrocution is nothing short of torture dressed up as justice. Just then, the man everyone's been waiting for enters your office. All eyes turn to watch Thomas Edison squeeze through the crowd and take a seat across from you at the desk. Remembering his near deafness, you raise your voice as you welcome him. Mr. Edison, thank you for taking the time to visit with us today. We are honored to have such an esteemed expert. Edison leans in closer with his good ear between his fingers, dangles an unlit, half finished cigar. The honor's mine, sir. The matter before us could not be more serious, so your expertise is much needed. You have long championed electricity as a beacon of progress and hope for mankind, have you not? Certainly. All my efforts have been devoted to refining electrical power in order to serve the public. Then how do you explain the fact that you are now advocating for electricity to be the instrument of death? Edison's face narrows. I'm here merely to offer my scientific expertise and you're mischaracterizing my stance. The direct form of current that we use at the Edison General Electric Company is low voltage and completely safe. It's the high voltage AC system that is dangerous. That's a vital distinction. Doesn't Westinghouse use an AC system? You seem obsessed with making sure that it's his system that is used for execution. Well, it would certainly do the trick. It's dangerous. But he is your business rival, is he not? Even so, I wish him no ill will. I simply believe he's pushing a lethal system of electricity onto the public. And what about your relationship to Mr. Harold Brown, who called for outlawing high voltage alternating current? I would say Mr. Brown is an ally in the quest to protect the public, but nothing more. Does that mean you have no business connection with him? No formal relationship? No, of course not. But isn't it true that you allowed him to use your prestigious laboratory to conduct his cruel experiments, electrifying and killing innocent animals? He did use my labs, but many other scientists do as well. That's no secret. Very well, let's move on. Precisely what effect would using alternating current have on a man? Well, his temperature would rise several degrees above normal and it would mummify him. Mummify him? Could you explain? Well, the heat would evaporate all the fluids in his body and then leave him mummified. That sounds horrifying. Could you guarantee that while being mummified, a man would not suffer? Given the proper administration and the proper voltage, death would be instantaneous. So, yes, it would be painless. But, Mr. Edison, are you a physician? No, I am not. A medical expert. Not that either. Then how can you be certain that this will not be a painful and prolonged death that amounts to cruel and unusual punishment? How can you be so sure? You pause and allow your question to linger in the air, watching as Edison contemplates his response. This is the man who brought the world the phonograph and the incandescent light bulb. His brilliance cannot be denied. And yet you feel that even he is reaching beyond his knowledge here today. You can only hope that you've done enough to demonstrate that electrocution would be anything but a humane form of execution. At a hearing to determine whether electrocution would be a cruel and unusual form of punishment, Kemmler's attorney, Burke Cochran, tried to show that the advocates for the electric chair were motivated by business competition rather than the public good, and that no expert, not even Thomas Edison, could guarantee that electricity could kill a man without causing suffering. But Cochran's strategy backfired. Edison's confidence, certainty, and celebrity proved more powerful than Cochran's cross examination. Newspapers celebrated Edison's appearance with headlines hailing him as the world's foremost authority on electrical current. And his testimony ultimately bolstered the state's case to use electricity for Kemmler's execution. And as a bonus, Edison had again managed to associate alternating current with death in the public mind. In the end, the New York Supreme Court rejected the argument that death by electricity was a cruel and unusual punishment. So on August 6, 1890, after months of delays, William Kemmler was executed at Auburn Prison in New York. As more than 20 witnesses looked on, including state officials and the press, Kemmler was hooked up to electrodes and shocked for 17 seconds with alternating current from a Westinghouse generator. But contrary to Edison's claims that death would be instantaneous, Kemmler did not die immediately. When doctors examined his body, it became clear that he was still breathing, and he suffered prolonged agony as officials raced reattach the electrodes and shock him again, this time for several minutes. Newspapers reported the entire ordeal in gory detail. This botched execution was a blow to Edison's reputation, and while he responded by calling the spectacle awful, he was quick to blame state officials for not administering the electricity properly. For his part, Westinghouse criticized the execution as a brutal affair and argued that it justified his case that electricity should never be used for capital punishment, while Tesla would later call the use of electricity for executions monstrous. But if Edison had hoped the Kemmler execution would damage his rival's business, he was mistaken. Despite the negative publicity around alternating current, Westinghouse's business continued to grow, even managing to expand abroad with new power stations in Cuba and China. In the meantime, while Edison and Westinghouse had been trading blows in the press, Nikola Tesla had quietly returned to the problem that had driven him out of Pittsburgh how to bring his revolutionary polyphase AC system to commercial scale. Working toward that goal, in early 1890, Tesla had filed three new patent claims related to his AC motor. Edison was watching closely. He understood that if Tesla succeeded, it would hand Westinghouse a decisive advantage, one that no amount of negative press could overcome. But Edison wasn't about to give up the fight. He had built his empire, invention by invention, and he wasn't going to let Westinghouse take it from him. So he gathered his lawyers and began preparing for a different kind of war. Whether you're exploring your current fascinations or discovering new ones, Audible has all the stories that'll introduce you to your most fascinating self. Tap into a whole new world of heated conversations with a saucy romantasy series, become your friend group sci fi expert on the latest blockbuster book to screen adaptation, or find unexpected reveals through the exclusive episodes of a viral true crime podcast. However you choose to listen, Audible keeps you fascinated so you can be just as fascinating all in one easy app. With plans now starting at $8.99, you'll get access to over 1 million audiobooks and podcasts, including trending bestsellers, the hottest new releases, and exclusive podcasts you won't find anywhere else. Sign up now to become a member and get any audiobook every month, plus exclusive podcasts. Plans now start at $8.99. Audible be fascinated, Be Fascinating. Whether you're exploring your current fascinations or discovering new ones, Audible has all the stories that'll introduce you to your most fascinating self. Tap into a whole new world of heated conversations with a saucy romantasy series, Become your friend group's sci fi expert on the latest blockbuster book to screen adaptation, or find unexpected reveals through the exclusive episodes of a viral true crime podcast. However you choose to listen, Audible keeps you fascinated so you can be just as fascinating all in one easy app with plans now starting at £5.99pence. You'll get access to over 900,000 audiobooks and podcasts, including trending bestsellers, the hottest new releases, and exclusive podcasts you won't find anywhere else. Sign up now to become a member and get any audiobook every month, plus exclusive podcasts. Plans now start at £5.99. Audible be fascinated. Be fascinating. In May 1891, Thomas Edison filed suit against his rival, George Westinghouse, arguing that Westinghouse's incandescent lighting system infringed on his light bulb patent. The heart of the suit was Edison's uniquely designed filament, which the Federal Patent Office had recognized a decade earlier. In 1880. The stakes in the case were high. Without access to Edison's bulb and without a viable alternative, Westinghouse's lighting systems could collapse, and his entire empire risked being crippled by litigation. But Westinghouse refused to be intimidated by Edison's formidable legal team and countersued, arguing that his AC system, based on Nikola Tesla's designs, was a unique technology. In court, Westinghouse leaned on Tesla's patents for his motor and transformers to bolster his claim. But even as this litigation was hoped to save his company, Edison was contending with mounting pressures from within his own ranks. In the summer of 1889, when business was riding high, he had agreed to consolidate his various business divisions and was paid handsomely for it. This deal made him a millionaire, but left him holding just 10% of his own company's stock, a trade off that now seemed costly as the legal battle intensified and he found himself needing to act swiftly. But on July 14, 1891, he got some good news. A federal judge ruled that Edison had a right to his exclusive incandescent bulb patent on the basis of the specially designed filament he and his assistants manufactured in his New Jersey lab. This meant that competitors like Westinghouse could no longer use similar designs without the risk of being sued. Westinghouse appealed this decision, but in the meantime he moved quickly to demonstrate his AC technology represented the future of electric power, with or without Edison's bulb. That summer, he got his chance when a mining operator in the frontier town of Telluride, Colorado, needed a new electrical system to power his gold mine. The operator was facing a dwindling supply of timber for fuel, so he signed up with Westinghouse. Since there was no existing power station, Westinghouse and Tesla were free to design and build one from scratch. They used Tesla's AC power design to generate electricity for the mine from a nearby river, then transferred 3,000 volts of electricity through three miles of copper wiring to the mine site. This system was so successful that many residents wanted to sign up for their own access to electricity and were angry when officials informed them that the town of Telluride had already signed a contract with Edison for his DC system. Through the winter of 1891, as the town and residents of Telluride battled in court and heated public hearings over which system to adopt, Westinghouse received reports that the AC system was performing reliably and steadily, even in mountainous terrain. This Telluride installation became the first commercial application of Tesla's design, and it represented a huge success. Now, no one could deny that their AC system was efficient, durable and cheap. And back in New Jersey, Edison viewed Westinghouse and Tesla's success with disdain and a growing unease about his own position. Then, in February 1892, Edison was blindsided. His company, Edison General Electric, merged with a competitor to create General Electric, a deal engineered by none other than JP Morgan, whose private Manhattan home had once served as a showcase for Edison's early electrical innovations. In the intervening years, though, Morgan had steadily gained influence in Edison's company. And now, as part of the merger, Morgan dropped Edison's name from the new company entirely, effectively pushing the inventor aside. An editorial and electrical engineer blamed Edison himself, arguing that his obsessive fight against AC technology had cost him control of his company. The editorial declared, Mr. Edison set his face against alternating current as a flint from the first and has sought on every possible occasion to discredit. It threw the weight in the community of his justly great name. But the tide would not turn back at his frown. And when Edison learned that his name had been dropped from the company that he founded, he was stunned. A friend later recalled that when he broke the news to Edison on a visit to his New Jersey workshop, Edison responded with uncharacteristic resignation, saying that I've come to the conclusion that I never did know anything about electricity, Though he quickly regained his typical confidence and pledged to reinvent himself entirely, saying, I'm going to do something now so different and so much bigger than anything I've ever done before that people will forget that my name was ever connected with anything electrical. Edison's friend noted this bravado, but also sensed a bitterness in the inventor's voice. His pride had been wounded. He said. I knew then that something had died in Edison's heart. In the spring of 1892, the nation was abuzz with the upcoming 400 year anniversary of the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas. Politicians and business leaders were eager to mark the occasion with an event bigger than any the nation had ever seen, though it was delayed a year by the presidential election. The Chicago World's Fair, formally known as the World's Columbian Exposition, was set to open in 1893. The fair was designed to showcase the progress and technology of America's growing industry, and nothing would be more prominently featured than electricity. Planners envisioned a temporary but dazzling city carved out of the marshland on the shores of Lake Michigan, ablaze with tens of thousands of electrical lights and packed with hundreds of exhibits. And it was no secret that whoever won the contract to power the fair would have an unprecedented stage to demonstrate their dominance in the electrical market. Imagine it's May 1892 in Chicago. You're a local city official and the vice president of the planning committee for next year's World Fair. You're in a cramped meeting room on the first floor of the fair's offices, where you and your fellow committee members have gathered in private to deliberate on an important matter. Take a deep breath and rise from your seat. Well, gentlemen, we're here to decide what may be the single most important question of the fair. Who will provide the electrical system? So let us select the best bid from the best company across the table. A burley committee member who never misses a chance for an argument, raises his hand. Well, in my mind, there's only one Westinghouse. Let's not waste our time pretending we're going to consider anyone else. You feel your face flush. Well, it's true that Mr. Westinghouse has submitted a bid, but GE has submitted an equally attractive proposal. I trust I don't need to remind any of you of the prominence and stellar track record of ge, founded by the genius inventor Thomas Edison. Yeah, well, where was Edison? Mr. Westinghouse made the trip all the way from Pittsburgh. And it's here personally. Edison's nowhere to be seen. Presumably, he's locked in his workshop, tinkering with his next gizmo. Well, Edison might not be here himself, but GE's top management are. You can't deny that they're the dominant player in the electric market. So dominant that the first bid they submitted was nearly triple the price. Well, since then, they've come down considerably. Which only proves that they were trying to rob us blind in the first place. Yeah. Look, those New York suits take us for suckers. We have a responsibility to the people of Chicago to get the best deal. Yes, but from the best company. Westinghouse is the best company. They've installed their AC systems across the country. They've proven their system is efficient, safe, and most importantly, economical. You notice several committee members nod their heads approvingly. Gentlemen, please. We're talking about the reputation of the city. This is not a time to pinch pennies. Well, I agree that the reputation of the city is the most important factor in our decision and precisely why we should choose Westinghouse. As you look around the room, you see that many of your fellow committee members appear to have made up their minds. Well, fine. I leave the decision to all of you. But remember, quality requires investment. When we throw that switch next year at the fair, the nation's eyes will be upon us, and it'll be our heads on the block. If anything goes wrong, you sit back down and wipe your brow with a handkerchief. You know the decision before the committee is monumental, so you just hope that when the votes are cast, the best company comes out on top of. After tense negotiations, the Chicago World's Fair committee awarded the contract to Westinghouse. He had visited Chicago several times in the spring of 1892, cultivating relationships with city officials and endearing himself to the local press. And while Thomas Edison's company had charged $11 per arclight during the fair's construction phase after their merger, General Electric's bid to illuminate the fair itself came in at triple that rate. The committee was outraged. And ultimately, Westinghouse's lower bid and promises of speedier progress won them over. So in May 1892, George Westinghouse returned to Pittsburgh triumphant, but with an enormous task in front of him. In just a year, he would have to design and build an entirely new electrical system capable of reliably powering tens of thousands of lights, all within a tight budget. But he wouldn't have to face the challenge alone. Nikola Tesla would soon join him, eager to seize the opportunity to finally prove on the grandest stage in the world that their AC system was the future of electric power.
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I'm Leon Nayfak, best known as the host and co creator of podcasts Slow Burn, Fiasco and Think Twice Michael Jackson. I'm here to tell you about my show. Final thoughts, Jerry Springer, whose name is synonymous with outrageous guests, taboo confessions and vicious onstage fights. But before the Jerry Springer show became a symbol of cultural decline, its namesake was a popular Midwestern politician and a serious minded idealist with lofty ambitions. Through dozens of intimate and revealing interviews with those who knew Springer best, I examined Springer's lifelong struggle to reconcile his TV Persona with his political dreams and aspirations. Named one of the best podcasts of the year by the New Yorker and Rolling Stone. Final Jerry Springer is a story about choices, how we make them, how we justify them to ourselves, and how we transcend them. Or don't Listen wherever you get your podcasts or binge the whole series ad free right now on Audible. Start your Audible subscription in the Audible app.
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Razaf I'm Raza Jafre and in the new season of the Spy who, we tell the story of Dr. A Q Khan, the spy who sold nuclear secrets to Iran. He was the scientist spy who stole nuclear technology from the Netherlands and used them to give Pakistan a bomb. But he didn't stop there. He became a black market atomic salesman, the fix it man for rogue states seeking nuclear weapons weapons including Iran, Libya and North Korea. And that left the CIA and MI6 in a race against time to put him out of business before the world's most wayward regimes get hold of the world's most destructive weapons. Follow the Spy who Now wherever you listen to podcasts, you can also listen to the full season of the Spy who Sold Nuclear Secret to Iran early ad free on Audible.
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On August 27, 1892, Nikola Tesla arrived in New York City after a seven month tour of Europe. In England and France, he had impressed crowds with his AC polyphase motor and demonstrated his latest innovations to rapt audiences. After a lecture at the Royal Institution in London, a prominent physicist declared, Mr. Tesla has the genius of a discoverer. But his most significant achievement had been securing a licensing agreement with a leading electric company in Hungary to use his patents to develop AC power across the continent. Excited by the prospect of introducing this new technology to Europe, Tesla wrote to George Westinghouse about the potential for business overseas. But while Westinghouse was intrigued by the news, he had a more immediate fulfilling his ambitious contract to power the Chicago World's Fair. Tesla understood immediately that there could be no expansion overseas without a triumphant demonstration of his AC power at home. So he pledged to go to Pittsburgh himself to work with Westinghouse's engineers, acknowledging it is necessary to bring the AC motor to high perfection before the exhibition, as this is of prime importance. But once in Pittsburgh, Tesla found Westinghouse's electrician struggling to meet the demands of the complex and demanding project, which would require 92,000 incandescent bulbs that could light up the fairgrounds for six months. In order to achieve what he had promised, Westinghouse's team would have to develop the largest power generating system ever produced. And with the fair scheduled to open in less than a year, it would have to be completed in record time. One engineer recalled being left in a daze by the sheer enormity of the task. His top manager warned, westinghouse is asking the impossible, and he just won't get it. These men who had to design and install the generator that would run the Ferris lights foresaw the many obstacles ahead. Up to that point, the average Westinghouse AC plant in a big city could power a maximum of 10,000 bulbs. What their boss was asking for was 10 times that. And the bulbs themselves remained a problem. Since Edison's patent win in the courts, Westinghouse could no longer use an incandescent bulb similar to Edison's. Although the case was still on appeal, Westinghouse knew his chances were slim. So he had no choice but to get to work designing a new kind of bulb, one that he could use in Chicago. So while Westinghouse and Tesla got to work in Pittsburgh, 7,000 laborers were toiling day and night in the swampy marshland south of Chicago, clearing land and cutting timber to build the structure structures that would become known as the White City. But even as it began to take shape, the courts were about to hand Westinghouse a setback. In December 1892, the US Supreme Court reaffirmed the patent ruling in Edison's favor, denying Westinghouse's appeal. The New York Times declared the matter settled with the headline Edison Again Successful, noting that the Westinghouse Company had been restrained from making, using or selling the Edison Bowl. But in defeat, Westinghouse's lawyers were curiously nonchalant. Because Westinghouse's engineers had made a breakthrough, they had managed to design a replacement bulb for their lighting system, which they called the stopper lamp. Instead of Edison's fused glass seal at the base of the bulb, Westinghouse used a two piece stopper to ensure the bulb was sealed and could contain the glowing filament. It burns just as brightly as Edison's, though for shorter duration. But more importantly, Westinghouse's engineers were confident that the design was different enough to avoid infringing on Edison's patent. And along with a new incandescent bulb, they were on track to fulfill their mission of powering the World's Fair, too. They had managed to build 12 towering generators, each weighing 75 tons. These massive machines were completed in January 1893 and shipped to Chicago just before opening day. And on Thursday, June 1, 1893, the Gem of the fair, the electricity building, opened the Building's impressive white column spanned nearly 700ft in length and was surrounded by a lagoon, a fountain, and a broad esplanade. And after more than a year of constant work and development, Westinghouse and Tesla had succeeded in the enormous task of illuminating the sprawling white City. In August, Tesla visited the fairgrounds and gave a demonstration to a packed and enthusiastic audience. Using a unique type of generator called an oscillator, he generated high frequency alternating currents, which produced dramatic electrical effects. He made objects spin and whirl, fired enormous sparks into the air, and lit up glass tubes and bulbs with no wires attached. Then, in a stunning display, he ran electricity through his own body, causing faint glimmers of electrical light to shimmer around him. The crowd was enthralled with his manipulation of electricity. But for many visitors, the greater wonder was the possibility that the power on display might be capable of changing their lives. Imagine it's a hot summer day in 1893. You're a corn and grain farmer with a small plot of land about 20 miles south of Chicago, and today, you and your neighbor have made the journey north to marvel at the inventions on display at the World's Fair. You couldn't wait to see what all the excitement was about. And your first stop was the electrical building. As you and your friends step out of a demonstration given by the famous inventor Nikola Tesla, you can see your neighbor's eyes are wide with amazement. I've never seen anything like that in my life. Did you see the bolts of light that flew around him? I sure did. I mean, how did he do that? He's like conjuring magic. It was impressive, for sure, but it's just electricity, not magic. Mr. Tesla is a scientist, not some wizard. Yeah, but you got to admit, it was a wild sight. As you continue to walk through the exhibit grounds, your eye is drawn to a large generator roped off from the crowd and manned by a few workers. You step closer, gazing at a system of copper wires and switchboards that display the electrical current running up a staircase and overhead to power a string of brilliant lights. Now that's what I call impressive. Look at that. All that power waiting to be harnessed. Well, not that it does us any good. It's just for the fair. Or, at best, rich folk. No, I don't agree. You don't see the potential. Look, how many hours a day do you work on your farm? Your friend gives you a smirk. You know the answer to that. As long as there's daylight, I'm working in the fields. Exactly. You and me both. And we're barely making making ends meet right from dawn to dusk. But think about it. With technology like this, we could light up our homes and the barns and the sheds, too. We'd be more productive. Well, I don't want to work day and night. Well, with more time, we could raise more cattle, plow bigger fields. We'd have higher yields if we were successful. We could even hire field hands so it wouldn't be just us. How about our kids? They barely managed to do their schoolwork. In the evening, they came see properly by the dim glow of an oil lamp. Well, my daughter is having trouble with her reading, that's for sure. Yeah, so now imagine if you had electric light in your home. She'd have a chance for something better. You watch as your friend's eyes begin to brighten and marvel at the prospect. You stare up at the generator, daring to dream. So far, it's felt like modernity. And electricity is something for the wealthy, reserved for big cities and the East. But for the first time, this wondrous invention feels like it might be available to you, too. During the summer of 1893, hundreds of thousands of ordinary Americans attended the Chicago World's Fair. And while many were impressed with the futuristic gadgets and machines that lit up the grounds, others saw the revolutionary potential for electricity to transform their lives in practical terms. And the demonstration of the fair's powerful and dynamic AC system made the prospect of the technology easy to grasp. With their audacious demonstration of electrical power, Westinghouse and Tesla were the undisputed stars of the fair. But they weren't alone in competing for the crowd's attention. General Electric had secured its own prominent place at the exposition as well. In the electrical building, GE presented an elaborate display of Edison's most successful inventions, designed to burnish his reputation as the era's preeminent inventor. And the crowds were dazzled by Edison's newest invention, a moving picture camera and projector, which could capture and replay visual images. But it would prove to be one of Edison's last great appearances in the electrical arena. Westinghouse and Tesla's triumph at the World's Fair had successfully demonstrated that the future belonged to alternating current. And Edison's direct current system would soon be rendered largely obsolete. So after the World's Fair, Edison turned his relentless energy elsewhere. He helped to launch the moving picture industry and spent years further refining the phonograph. He also spent millions of dollars of his own money on failed pursuits, such as a giant rock crushing machine for mining and a search for a new material to make rubber. His bold promise to invent something bigger than the electric light never panned out. He would forever be known as the inventor of the light bulb and associate it with its incandescent glow. Meanwhile, the system he fought so hard to defeat would soon become the foundation of modern life. The same year that Westinghouse and Tesla won the contract for the Chicago World's Fair, they also secured the right to develop the nation's biggest hydroelectric project at Niagara Falls, cementing their dominance of the electrical market. Four Years later, on November 15, 1896, Tesla threw the switch that brought electricity to Buffalo, New York, making it the first city in America to have widespread electrical power. Tesla spent the final decades of his life consumed with grander and more elusive ambitions, becoming obsessed with radio frequencies and even paranormal communication. But he never lost his fascination with electricity, continuing to stage daring demonstrations of artificial lightning and magnetic fields in his laboratories. And despite his bitter rivalry with Edison, he reflected on their greatest achievement, harnessing the power of electricity, when he said, we are whirling through endless space with an inconceivable speed. All around us, everything is spinning, everything is moving, everywhere is energy. The mere contemplation of those magnificent possibilities expands our minds, strengthens our hopes, and fills our hearts with supreme delight. From Audible Originals this is episode three of our three part series on Edison versus Tesla for American Historytellers. In the next episode, I'll speak with Dr. Paul Israel, the director and general editor of the Thomas A. Edison Papers at Rutgers University and author of A Life of Invention. We'll discuss the journey Edison took to become the most famous inventor of his time and how he assembled the team that made his biggest ideas possible. Follow American Historytellers on the Audible app or wherever you get your podcasts. You can listen to all episodes of American Historytellers ad free by joining Audible. And to find out more about me and my other projects, including my live stage show coming to a theater near you, go to notthatlinseygraham.com that's not that. Lindseygraham.com if you'd like to learn more, we recommend Empires of Light by Jill Jones and Edison and the Electric Chair by Mark Essig. American Historytellers is hosted, edited and produced by me, Lindsey Graham for Airship. This episode is written by Dorian Marina, senior producers Alida Ryazanski and Andy Beckerman Managing Producer Desi Blaylock Audio editing by Mohammad Shah Music by Thrum Sound design by Molly Bach Executive Producer for Audible, Jenny Lauer Beckman head of Creative Development at Audible Kate Navin, head of Audible Originals North America Marshall Louie, Chief Content Officer Rachel Giazza Copyright 2026 by Audible Originals, LLC Sound Recording Copyright 2026 by Audible Original. 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